Nicomachean Ethics

About Aristotle

Aristotle (384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher from Stagira who studied with Plato in Athens for twenty years, tutored Alexander the Great, and founded his own school, the Lyceum. His works shaped logic, science, ethics and politics for two thousand years.

Who’s who

Socrates

Athenian philosopher (469–399 BC), cited for his view that courage is knowledge and that no one acts badly knowingly.

Plato

Aristotle’s teacher, cited on first principles and on education from childhood; Book 1 criticizes the theory of forms held by his circle.

Eudoxus

Mathematician and astronomer in Plato’s circle who argued that pleasure is the good, since all creatures seek it.

Speusippus

Plato’s nephew and successor at the Academy, cited in the discussions of the good and of pleasure.

Solon

Athenian lawgiver (sixth century BC) who said to call no one happy until you see the end of his life.

Priam

King of Troy in Homer, whose great fortunes ended in disaster: the stock example of happiness undone by misfortune.

Anaxagoras

Philosopher of the fifth century BC, cited, with Thales, as wise but not practically wise.

Neoptolemus

Young hero of Sophocles’ Philoctetes who abandons a plan he agreed to because lying pains him.

Key terms

happiness εὐδαιμονία eudaimonia

The highest human good, sought for its own sake: not a feeling but a whole life going well, an activity of the soul in accordance with excellence.

excellence ἀρετή aretē

What makes a person, or anything, good at its function. In people it is a settled state, either of character (like courage) or of intellect (like wisdom).

excellence of character ἠθικὴ ἀρετή ēthikē aretē

Excellence formed by habit, such as courage, moderation or justice: a settled disposition to feel and act well, choosing the mean between excess and deficiency.

practical wisdom φρόνησις phronēsis

The intellectual excellence of deliberating well about what is good for a human life, and seeing what to do in particular situations.

wisdom σοφία sophia

Theoretical wisdom: the highest intellectual excellence, combining intellect and scientific knowledge of the most honorable and unchanging things.

state ἕξις hexis

A settled condition of the soul, formed by repeated action, that disposes a person to feel and act in certain ways; excellences and vices are states.

the mean μεσότης mesotēs

The intermediate point between excess and deficiency, relative to us and set by reason as the practically wise person would set it.

excess ὑπερβολή / ἔλλειψις huperbolē / elleipsis

Too much and too little in feeling or action; each excellence of character lies between an excess and a deficiency, which are vices.

decision προαίρεσις prohairesis

A deliberate choice of something in our power, reached by deliberation about the means to an end; it shows character more than actions do.

voluntary ἑκούσιον / ἀκούσιον hekousion / akousion

An action is voluntary when its origin lies in the agent, who knows the circumstances; involuntary when done under force or through ignorance.

function ἔργον ergon

The characteristic work of a thing. The human function is the activity of the soul in accordance with reason, and doing it well is happiness.

the fine τὸ καλόν to kalon

What is admirable or noble; the excellent person acts for the sake of the fine.

lack of self-control ἀκρασία akrasia

Acting against one’s own better judgment because of desire or passion; the uncontrolled person knows what is best but does otherwise.

self-control ἐγκράτεια enkrateia

Acting on one’s better judgment despite strong contrary desires; better than lack of self-control, but short of the harmony of true moderation.

friendship φιλία philia

Mutual, recognized goodwill between people, based on usefulness, pleasure or goodness; the complete kind is between good people who love each other for their character.

contemplation θεωρία theōria

The activity of intellect studying truth for its own sake; in Book 10 it is the highest and most complete form of happiness.