Socratesμετὰ ταῦτα δή, εἶπον, ἀπείκασον τοιούτῳ πάθει τὴν ἡμετέραν φύσιν παιδείας τε πέρι καὶ ἀπαιδευσίας. ἰδὲ γὰρ ἀνθρώπους οἷον ἐν καταγείῳ οἰκήσει σπηλαιώδει, ἀναπεπταμένην πρὸς τὸ φῶς τὴν εἴσοδον ἐχούσῃ μακρὰν παρὰ πᾶν τὸ σπήλαιον, ἐν ταύτῃ ἐκ παίδων ὄντας ἐν δεσμοῖς καὶ τὰ σκέλη καὶ τοὺς αὐχένας, ὥστε μένειν τε αὐτοὺς εἴς τε τὸ 514b πρόσθεν μόνον ὁρᾶν, κύκλῳ δὲ τὰς κεφαλὰς ὑπὸ τοῦ δεσμοῦ ἀδυνάτους περιάγειν, φῶς δὲ αὐτοῖς πυρὸς ἄνωθεν καὶ πόρρωθεν καόμενον ὄπισθεν αὐτῶν, μεταξὺ δὲ τοῦ πυρὸς καὶ τῶν δεσμωτῶν ἐπάνω ὁδόν, παρʼ ἣν ἰδὲ τειχίον παρῳκοδομημένον, ὥσπερ τοῖς θαυματοποιοῖς πρὸ τῶν ἀνθρώπων πρόκειται τὰ παραφράγματα, ὑπὲρ ὧν τὰ θαύματα δεικνύασιν.
Socrates“Next,” I said, “compare our nature, in its education and lack of education, to a condition like this. Picture people living in a sort of underground cave-like dwelling, with a long entrance open to the light across the whole width of the cave. They’ve been there since childhood, fettered by the legs and neck, so that they stay where they are and see only what’s in 514b front of them, unable to turn their heads around because of the fetters. Light comes to them from a fire burning above and far behind them. Between the fire and the prisoners there’s a road higher up, and along it, picture a low wall built, like the screens that puppeteers set up in front of the audience, above which they show their puppets.”
ὁρῶ, ἔφη.
ὅρα τοίνυν παρὰ τοῦτο τὸ τειχίον φέροντας ἀνθρώπους 514c σκεύη τε παντοδαπὰ ὑπερέχοντα τοῦ τειχίου καὶ ἀνδριάντας 515a καὶ ἄλλα ζῷα λίθινά τε καὶ ξύλινα καὶ παντοῖα εἰργασμένα, οἷον εἰκὸς τοὺς μὲν φθεγγομένους, τοὺς δὲ σιγῶντας τῶν παραφερόντων.
ἄτοπον, ἔφη, λέγεις εἰκόνα καὶ δεσμώτας ἀτόπους.
ὁμοίους ἡμῖν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ· τοὺς γὰρ τοιούτους πρῶτον μὲν ἑαυτῶν τε καὶ ἀλλήλων οἴει ἄν τι ἑωρακέναι ἄλλο πλὴν τὰς σκιὰς τὰς ὑπὸ τοῦ πυρὸς εἰς τὸ καταντικρὺ αὐτῶν τοῦ σπηλαίου προσπιπτούσας;
“I see,” he said.
“Then see people carrying along this low wall 514c all kinds of artifacts that stick up above it, and statues of people 515a and other animals made of stone and wood and every sort of material. As you’d expect, some of the carriers are talking and some are silent.”
“It’s a strange image you’re describing,” he said, “and strange prisoners.”
“Like us,” I said. “First of all, do you think such people would have seen anything of themselves or of one another except the shadows cast by the fire onto the wall of the cave in front of them?”
πῶς γάρ, ἔφη, εἰ ἀκινήτους γε τὰς κεφαλὰς ἔχειν ἠναγκασμένοι 515b εἶεν διὰ βίου;
τί δὲ τῶν παραφερομένων; οὐ ταὐτὸν τοῦτο;
τί μήν;
εἰ οὖν διαλέγεσθαι οἷοί τʼ εἶεν πρὸς ἀλλήλους, οὐ ταῦτα ἡγῇ ἂν τὰ ὄντα αὐτοὺς νομίζειν ἅπερ ὁρῷεν;
ἀνάγκη.
τί δʼ εἰ καὶ ἠχὼ τὸ δεσμωτήριον ἐκ τοῦ καταντικρὺ ἔχοι; ὁπότε τις τῶν παριόντων φθέγξαιτο, οἴει ἂν ἄλλο τι αὐτοὺς ἡγεῖσθαι τὸ φθεγγόμενον ἢ τὴν παριοῦσαν σκιάν;
μὰ Δίʼ οὐκ ἔγωγʼ, ἔφη. 515c
“How could they,” he said, “if they’d been forced to keep their heads motionless 515b all their lives?”
“And what about the things being carried past? Isn’t it the same?”
“Of course.”
“Then if they could talk to one another, don’t you think they’d believe that the things they saw were the things that are?”
“Necessarily.”
“And what if the prison also had an echo from the wall facing them? Whenever one of the passers-by spoke, do you think they’d believe that the speaker was anything other than the passing shadow?”
“No, by Zeus, I don’t,” he said. 515c
παντάπασι δή, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, οἱ τοιοῦτοι οὐκ ἂν ἄλλο τι νομίζοιεν τὸ ἀληθὲς ἢ τὰς τῶν σκευαστῶν σκιάς.
πολλὴ ἀνάγκη, ἔφη.
“Then in every way,” I said, “such people would believe the truth to be nothing other than the shadows of the artifacts.”
“Quite necessarily,” he said.
σκόπει δή, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, αὐτῶν λύσιν τε καὶ ἴασιν τῶν τε δεσμῶν καὶ τῆς ἀφροσύνης, οἵα τις ἂν εἴη, εἰ φύσει τοιάδε συμβαίνοι αὐτοῖς· ὁπότε τις λυθείη καὶ ἀναγκάζοιτο ἐξαίφνης ἀνίστασθαί τε καὶ περιάγειν τὸν αὐχένα καὶ βαδίζειν καὶ πρὸς τὸ φῶς ἀναβλέπειν, πάντα δὲ ταῦτα ποιῶν ἀλγοῖ τε καὶ διὰ τὰς μαρμαρυγὰς ἀδυνατοῖ καθορᾶν ἐκεῖνα ὧν 515d τότε τὰς σκιὰς ἑώρα, τί ἂν οἴει αὐτὸν εἰπεῖν, εἴ τις αὐτῷ λέγοι ὅτι τότε μὲν ἑώρα φλυαρίας, νῦν δὲ μᾶλλόν τι ἐγγυτέρω τοῦ ὄντος καὶ πρὸς μᾶλλον ὄντα τετραμμένος ὀρθότερον βλέποι, καὶ δὴ καὶ ἕκαστον τῶν παριόντων δεικνὺς αὐτῷ ἀναγκάζοι ἐρωτῶν ἀποκρίνεσθαι ὅτι ἔστιν; οὐκ οἴει αὐτὸν ἀπορεῖν τε ἂν καὶ ἡγεῖσθαι τὰ τότε ὁρώμενα ἀληθέστερα ἢ τὰ νῦν δεικνύμενα;
“Now consider,” I said, “what their release from their fetters and their cure from folly would be like, if something like this happened to them in the course of nature. Whenever one of them was freed and suddenly forced to stand up, turn his neck around, walk and look up toward the light, he’d be in pain doing all this, and because of the dazzle he’d be unable to make out the things whose 515d shadows he’d seen before. What do you think he’d say if someone told him that before he’d been seeing nonsense, but now, being somewhat nearer to what is and turned toward things that more fully are, he was seeing more correctly—and, what’s more, pointed to each of the things passing by and forced him to answer the question of what it is? Don’t you think he’d be at a loss, and would believe that the things he saw before were truer than the ones now being pointed out to him?”
πολύ γʼ, ἔφη. 515e
οὐκοῦν κἂν εἰ πρὸς αὐτὸ τὸ φῶς ἀναγκάζοι αὐτὸν βλέπειν, ἀλγεῖν τε ἂν τὰ ὄμματα καὶ φεύγειν ἀποστρεφόμενον πρὸς ἐκεῖνα ἃ δύναται καθορᾶν, καὶ νομίζειν ταῦτα τῷ ὄντι σαφέστερα τῶν δεικνυμένων;
οὕτως, ἔφη.
“Much truer,” he said. 515e
“And if someone forced him to look at the light itself, wouldn’t his eyes hurt, and wouldn’t he turn away and flee toward the things he’s able to make out, and believe that these are really clearer than the things being pointed out?”
“Yes,” he said.
εἰ δέ, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, ἐντεῦθεν ἕλκοι τις αὐτὸν βίᾳ διὰ τραχείας τῆς ἀναβάσεως καὶ ἀνάντους, καὶ μὴ ἀνείη πρὶν ἐξελκύσειεν εἰς τὸ τοῦ ἡλίου φῶς, ἆρα οὐχὶ ὀδυνᾶσθαί τε 516a ἂν καὶ ἀγανακτεῖν ἑλκόμενον, καὶ ἐπειδὴ πρὸς τὸ φῶς ἔλθοι, αὐγῆς ἂν ἔχοντα τὰ ὄμματα μεστὰ ὁρᾶν οὐδʼ ἂν ἓν δύνασθαι τῶν νῦν λεγομένων ἀληθῶν;
οὐ γὰρ ἄν, ἔφη, ἐξαίφνης γε.
“And if someone dragged him by force from there up the rough, steep ascent,” I said, “and didn’t let go until he’d dragged him out into the light of the sun, wouldn’t he be in pain 516a and angry at being dragged? And when he came into the light, with his eyes full of its glare, wouldn’t he be unable to see even one of the things we now call true?”
“No, he wouldn’t,” he said, “not right away.”
συνηθείας δὴ οἶμαι δέοιτʼ ἄν, εἰ μέλλοι τὰ ἄνω ὄψεσθαι. καὶ πρῶτον μὲν τὰς σκιὰς ἂν ῥᾷστα καθορῷ, καὶ μετὰ τοῦτο ἐν τοῖς ὕδασι τά τε τῶν ἀνθρώπων καὶ τὰ τῶν ἄλλων εἴδωλα, ὕστερον δὲ αὐτά· ἐκ δὲ τούτων τὰ ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ καὶ αὐτὸν τὸν οὐρανὸν νύκτωρ ἂν ῥᾷον θεάσαιτο, προσβλέπων τὸ τῶν 516b ἄστρων τε καὶ σελήνης φῶς, ἢ μεθʼ ἡμέραν τὸν ἥλιόν τε καὶ τὸ τοῦ ἡλίου.
πῶς δʼ οὔ;
“He’d need to get used to it, I think, if he were going to see the things up there. At first he’d most easily make out shadows, and after that the reflections of people and other things in water, and later the things themselves. From these he’d go on to look at the things in the heavens, and the heavens themselves, more easily at night, gazing at the light of the 516b stars and the moon, than at the sun and the sun’s light by day.”
“Of course.”
τελευταῖον δὴ οἶμαι τὸν ἥλιον, οὐκ ἐν ὕδασιν οὐδʼ ἐν ἀλλοτρίᾳ ἕδρᾳ φαντάσματα αὐτοῦ, ἀλλʼ αὐτὸν καθʼ αὑτὸν ἐν τῇ αὑτοῦ χώρᾳ δύναιτʼ ἂν κατιδεῖν καὶ θεάσασθαι οἷός ἐστιν.
ἀναγκαῖον, ἔφη.
καὶ μετὰ ταῦτʼ ἂν ἤδη συλλογίζοιτο περὶ αὐτοῦ ὅτι οὗτος ὁ τάς τε ὥρας παρέχων καὶ ἐνιαυτοὺς καὶ πάντα ἐπιτροπεύων 516c τὰ ἐν τῷ ὁρωμένῳ τόπῳ, καὶ ἐκείνων ὧν σφεῖς ἑώρων τρόπον τινὰ πάντων αἴτιος.
δῆλον, ἔφη, ὅτι ἐπὶ ταῦτα ἂν μετʼ ἐκεῖνα ἔλθοι.
“And finally, I think, he’d be able to make out the sun—not its reflections in water or in some place not its own, but the sun itself, by itself, in its own place—and to look at it as it is.”
“Necessarily,” he said.
“And after this he’d reason about it that it’s the sun that provides the seasons and the years and governs everything 516c in the visible realm, and is in a way the cause of all those things he and his companions used to see.”
“Clearly,” he said, “he’d come to that after the others.”
τί οὖν; ἀναμιμνῃσκόμενον αὐτὸν τῆς πρώτης οἰκήσεως καὶ τῆς ἐκεῖ σοφίας καὶ τῶν τότε συνδεσμωτῶν οὐκ ἂν οἴει αὑτὸν μὲν εὐδαιμονίζειν τῆς μεταβολῆς, τοὺς δὲ ἐλεεῖν;
καὶ μάλα.
“Well then? When he remembers his first dwelling, and the wisdom there, and his fellow prisoners of that time, don’t you think he’d count himself happy for the change, and pity them?”
“Very much so.”
τιμαὶ δὲ καὶ ἔπαινοι εἴ τινες αὐτοῖς ἦσαν τότε παρʼ ἀλλήλων καὶ γέρα τῷ ὀξύτατα καθορῶντι τὰ παριόντα, καὶ μνημονεύοντι μάλιστα ὅσα τε πρότερα αὐτῶν καὶ ὕστερα 516d εἰώθει καὶ ἅμα πορεύεσθαι, καὶ ἐκ τούτων δὴ δυνατώτατα ἀπομαντευομένῳ τὸ μέλλον ἥξειν, δοκεῖς ἂν αὐτὸν ἐπιθυμητικῶς αὐτῶν ἔχειν καὶ ζηλοῦν τοὺς παρʼ ἐκείνοις τιμωμένους τε καὶ ἐνδυναστεύοντας, ἢ τὸ τοῦ Ὁμήρου ἂν πεπονθέναι καὶ σφόδρα βούλεσθαι ἐπάρουρον ἐόντα θητευέμεν ἄλλῳ ἀνδρὶ παρʼ ἀκλήρῳ καὶ ὁτιοῦν ἂν πεπονθέναι μᾶλλον ἢ ʼκεῖνά τε δοξάζειν καὶ ἐκείνως ζῆν; 516e
“And suppose they’d had honors and praise from one another back then, and prizes for whoever was sharpest at making out the things passing by and best at remembering which of them usually came earlier, which later, 516d and which together, and who was therefore best able to divine what was going to come next. Do you think he’d hanker after these things and envy those who are honored and hold power among them? Or would he feel what Homer describes, and very much prefer ‘to work the land as a hired hand for another man, a man with no land of his own,’ and put up with anything at all rather than hold those opinions and live that way?” 516e
οὕτως, ἔφη, ἔγωγε οἶμαι, πᾶν μᾶλλον πεπονθέναι ἂν δέξασθαι ἢ ζῆν ἐκείνως.
καὶ τόδε δὴ ἐννόησον, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ. εἰ πάλιν ὁ τοιοῦτος καταβὰς εἰς τὸν αὐτὸν θᾶκον καθίζοιτο, ἆρʼ οὐ σκότους ἂν ἀνάπλεως σχοίη τοὺς ὀφθαλμούς, ἐξαίφνης ἥκων ἐκ τοῦ ἡλίου;
καὶ μάλα γʼ, ἔφη.
“Yes,” he said, “I think he’d accept anything rather than live that way.”
“Now think about this too,” I said. “If such a man went back down and sat in the same seat, wouldn’t his eyes be full of darkness, coming suddenly out of the sun?”
“Very much so,” he said.
τὰς δὲ δὴ σκιὰς ἐκείνας πάλιν εἰ δέοι αὐτὸν γνωματεύοντα διαμιλλᾶσθαι τοῖς ἀεὶ δεσμώταις ἐκείνοις, ἐν ᾧ ἀμβλυώττει, 517a πρὶν καταστῆναι τὰ ὄμματα, οὗτος δʼ ὁ χρόνος μὴ πάνυ ὀλίγος εἴη τῆς συνηθείας, ἆρʼ οὐ γέλωτʼ ἂν παράσχοι, καὶ λέγοιτο ἂν περὶ αὐτοῦ ὡς ἀναβὰς ἄνω διεφθαρμένος ἥκει τὰ ὄμματα, καὶ ὅτι οὐκ ἄξιον οὐδὲ πειρᾶσθαι ἄνω ἰέναι; καὶ τὸν ἐπιχειροῦντα λύειν τε καὶ ἀνάγειν, εἴ πως ἐν ταῖς χερσὶ δύναιντο λαβεῖν καὶ ἀποκτείνειν, ἀποκτεινύναι ἄν;
σφόδρα γʼ, ἔφη.
“And if he had to compete again with those perpetual prisoners in judging those shadows while his sight was still dim, 517a before his eyes had settled—and the time it took to get used to it wouldn’t be very short—wouldn’t he make them laugh? Wouldn’t they say of him that he’d gone up and come back with his eyes ruined, and that it isn’t worth even trying to go up? And as for anyone who tried to free them and lead them up, if they could somehow get their hands on him and kill him, wouldn’t they kill him?”
“They certainly would,” he said.
ταύτην τοίνυν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, τὴν εἰκόνα, ὦ φίλε Γλαύκων, 517b προσαπτέον ἅπασαν τοῖς ἔμπροσθεν λεγομένοις, τὴν μὲν διʼ ὄψεως φαινομένην ἕδραν τῇ τοῦ δεσμωτηρίου οἰκήσει ἀφομοιοῦντα, τὸ δὲ τοῦ πυρὸς ἐν αὐτῇ φῶς τῇ τοῦ ἡλίου δυνάμει· τὴν δὲ ἄνω ἀνάβασιν καὶ θέαν τῶν ἄνω τὴν εἰς τὸν νοητὸν τόπον τῆς ψυχῆς ἄνοδον τιθεὶς οὐχ ἁμαρτήσῃ τῆς γʼ ἐμῆς ἐλπίδος, ἐπειδὴ ταύτης ἐπιθυμεῖς ἀκούειν. θεὸς δέ που οἶδεν εἰ ἀληθὴς οὖσα τυγχάνει.
“Now, my dear Glaucon,” I said, “this whole image 517b must be connected with what was said before. Liken the region that appears through sight to the prison dwelling, and the light of the fire in it to the power of the sun. And if you take the ascent and the viewing of the things above as the soul’s journey up into the intelligible realm, you won’t mistake my hope, since that’s what you want to hear. A god knows, perhaps, whether it’s actually true.
τὰ δʼ οὖν ἐμοὶ φαινόμενα οὕτω φαίνεται, ἐν τῷ γνωστῷ τελευταία ἡ τοῦ 517c ἀγαθοῦ ἰδέα καὶ μόγις ὁρᾶσθαι, ὀφθεῖσα δὲ συλλογιστέα εἶναι ὡς ἄρα πᾶσι πάντων αὕτη ὀρθῶν τε καὶ καλῶν αἰτία, ἔν τε ὁρατῷ φῶς καὶ τὸν τούτου κύριον τεκοῦσα, ἔν τε νοητῷ αὐτὴ κυρία ἀλήθειαν καὶ νοῦν παρασχομένη, καὶ ὅτι δεῖ ταύτην ἰδεῖν τὸν μέλλοντα ἐμφρόνως πράξειν ἢ ἰδίᾳ ἢ δημοσίᾳ.
“But this is how things appear to me: in the knowable realm, the last thing to be seen, and seen only with difficulty, is the form of the 517c good. But once seen, it must be concluded that it is the cause of all that is right and beautiful in everything. In the visible realm it gave birth to light and to light’s lord; in the intelligible realm it is itself lord, providing truth and understanding. And whoever is going to act sensibly, in private or in public life, must see it.”
συνοίομαι, ἔφη, καὶ ἐγώ, ὅν γε δὴ τρόπον δύναμαι.
ἴθι τοίνυν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, καὶ τόδε συνοιήθητι καὶ μὴ θαυμάσῃς ὅτι οἱ ἐνταῦθα ἐλθόντες οὐκ ἐθέλουσιν τὰ τῶν ἀνθρώπων πράττειν, ἀλλʼ ἄνω ἀεὶ ἐπείγονται αὐτῶν αἱ ψυχαὶ διατρίβειν· 517d εἰκὸς γάρ που οὕτως, εἴπερ αὖ κατὰ τὴν προειρημένην εἰκόνα τοῦτʼ ἔχει.
εἰκὸς μέντοι, ἔφη.
“I agree too,” he said, “as far as I’m able.”
“Come on, then,” I said, “agree with me about this as well, and don’t be surprised that those who have got this far aren’t willing to take part in human affairs, but their souls are always eager to spend their time up above. 517d That’s surely what we’d expect, if this too follows the image we described.”
“It is what we’d expect,” he said.
τί δέ; τόδε οἴει τι θαυμαστόν, εἰ ἀπὸ θείων, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, θεωριῶν ἐπὶ τὰ ἀνθρώπειά τις ἐλθὼν κακὰ ἀσχημονεῖ τε καὶ φαίνεται σφόδρα γελοῖος ἔτι ἀμβλυώττων καὶ πρὶν ἱκανῶς συνήθης γενέσθαι τῷ παρόντι σκότῳ ἀναγκαζόμενος ἐν δικαστηρίοις ἢ ἄλλοθί που ἀγωνίζεσθαι περὶ τῶν τοῦ δικαίου σκιῶν ἢ ἀγαλμάτων ὧν αἱ σκιαί, καὶ διαμιλλᾶσθαι 517e περὶ τούτου, ὅπῃ ποτὲ ὑπολαμβάνεται ταῦτα ὑπὸ τῶν αὐτὴν δικαιοσύνην μὴ πώποτε ἰδόντων;
οὐδʼ ὁπωστιοῦν θαυμαστόν, ἔφη.
“And what about this? Do you think it’s at all surprising,” I said, “if someone who comes from divine contemplations to human evils behaves awkwardly and looks very ridiculous when, with his sight still dim and before he’s become adequately used to the darkness around him, he’s forced to contend in law courts or elsewhere about the shadows of justice, or the statues that cast those shadows, and to argue 517e about how these things are understood by people who have never seen justice itself?”
“Not in the least surprising,” he said.
ἀλλʼ εἰ νοῦν γε ἔχοι τις, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, μεμνῇτʼ ἂν ὅτι διτταὶ καὶ ἀπὸ διττῶν γίγνονται ἐπιταράξεις ὄμμασιν, ἔκ τε φωτὸς εἰς σκότος μεθισταμένων καὶ ἐκ σκότους εἰς φῶς. ταὐτὰ δὲ ταῦτα νομίσας γίγνεσθαι καὶ περὶ ψυχήν, ὁπότε ἴδοι θορυβουμένην τινὰ καὶ ἀδυνατοῦσάν τι καθορᾶν, οὐκ ἂν ἀλογίστως γελῷ, ἀλλʼ ἐπισκοποῖ ἂν πότερον ἐκ φανοτέρου βίου ἥκουσα ὑπὸ ἀηθείας ἐσκότωται, ἢ ἐξ ἀμαθίας πλείονος εἰς φανότερον ἰοῦσα ὑπὸ λαμπροτέρου μαρμαρυγῆς 518b ἐμπέπλησται, καὶ οὕτω δὴ τὴν μὲν εὐδαιμονίσειεν ἂν τοῦ πάθους τε καὶ βίου, τὴν δὲ ἐλεήσειεν, καὶ εἰ γελᾶν ἐπʼ αὐτῇ βούλοιτο, ἧττον ἂν καταγέλαστος ὁ γέλως αὐτῷ εἴη ἢ ὁ ἐπὶ τῇ ἄνωθεν ἐκ φωτὸς ἡκούσῃ.
“But anyone with sense,” I said, “would remember that the eyes can be confused in two ways, from two causes: when they move from light into darkness, and when they move from darkness into light. Believing that the same thing happens to the soul too, whenever he saw one that was troubled and unable to make anything out, he wouldn’t laugh at it thoughtlessly. He would consider whether it had come from a brighter life and was in darkness because it was unused to the dark, or whether it was coming from greater ignorance into something brighter and was 518b filled with the dazzle of a more brilliant light. Then he would count the one happy in its experience and its life, and pity the other; and if he did want to laugh at that one, his laughter would be less ridiculous than laughter at the soul that had come down from the light above.”
Education as a turning around
Socrates argues that education turns the soul toward the light rather than putting knowledge into it.
καὶ μάλα, ἔφη, μετρίως λέγεις.
δεῖ δή, εἶπον, ἡμᾶς τοιόνδε νομίσαι περὶ αὐτῶν, εἰ ταῦτʼ ἀληθῆ· τὴν παιδείαν οὐχ οἵαν τινὲς ἐπαγγελλόμενοί φασιν εἶναι τοιαύτην καὶ εἶναι. φασὶ δέ που οὐκ ἐνούσης ἐν τῇ 518c ψυχῇ ἐπιστήμης σφεῖς ἐντιθέναι, οἷον τυφλοῖς ὀφθαλμοῖς ὄψιν ἐντιθέντες.
φασὶ γὰρ οὖν, ἔφη.
“That’s very fairly put,” he said.
“Then if this is true,” I said, “we must think this about these matters: education isn’t what some of those who profess it claim it is. They claim, I think, that they can put knowledge into a 518c soul that lacks it, as if they were putting sight into blind eyes.”
“They do claim that,” he said.
ὁ δέ γε νῦν λόγος, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, σημαίνει ταύτην τὴν ἐνοῦσαν ἑκάστου δύναμιν ἐν τῇ ψυχῇ καὶ τὸ ὄργανον ᾧ καταμανθάνει ἕκαστος, οἷον εἰ ὄμμα μὴ δυνατὸν ἦν ἄλλως ἢ σὺν ὅλῳ τῷ σώματι στρέφειν πρὸς τὸ φανὸν ἐκ τοῦ σκοτώδους, οὕτω σὺν ὅλῃ τῇ ψυχῇ ἐκ τοῦ γιγνομένου περιακτέον εἶναι, ἕως ἂν εἰς τὸ ὂν καὶ τοῦ ὄντος τὸ φανότατον δυνατὴ γένηται ἀνασχέσθαι θεωμένη· τοῦτο δʼ εἶναί φαμεν 518d τἀγαθόν. ἦ γάρ;
ναί.
“But our present argument,” I said, “shows that this power is already present in each person’s soul, and so is the instrument each of us learns with. It’s as if an eye couldn’t turn from darkness toward the light except together with the whole body: in the same way this instrument must be turned around, together with the whole soul, away from what comes to be, until it is able to bear looking at what is, and at the brightest of what is. And this, we say, is 518d the good. Isn’t it?”
“Yes.”
τούτου τοίνυν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, αὐτοῦ τέχνη ἂν εἴη, τῆς περιαγωγῆς, τίνα τρόπον ὡς ῥᾷστά τε καὶ ἀνυσιμώτατα μεταστραφήσεται, οὐ τοῦ ἐμποιῆσαι αὐτῷ τὸ ὁρᾶν, ἀλλʼ ὡς ἔχοντι μὲν αὐτό, οὐκ ὀρθῶς δὲ τετραμμένῳ οὐδὲ βλέποντι οἷ ἔδει, τοῦτο διαμηχανήσασθαι.
ἔοικεν γάρ, ἔφη.
“Then there would be an art of this very thing,” I said, “of the turning around: of how this instrument can be turned most easily and effectively. It wouldn’t be an art of putting sight into it. It would take for granted that it has sight but isn’t turned the right way or looking where it should, and contrive to bring that about.”
“So it seems,” he said.
αἱ μὲν τοίνυν ἄλλαι ἀρεταὶ καλούμεναι ψυχῆς κινδυνεύουσιν ἐγγύς τι εἶναι τῶν τοῦ σώματος—τῷ ὄντι γὰρ 518e οὐκ ἐνοῦσαι πρότερον ὕστερον ἐμποιεῖσθαι ἔθεσι καὶ ἀσκήσεσιν—ἡ δὲ τοῦ φρονῆσαι παντὸς μᾶλλον θειοτέρου τινὸς τυγχάνει, ὡς ἔοικεν, οὖσα, ὃ τὴν μὲν δύναμιν οὐδέποτε ἀπόλλυσιν, ὑπὸ δὲ τῆς περιαγωγῆς χρήσιμόν τε καὶ ὠφέλιμον 519a καὶ ἄχρηστον αὖ καὶ βλαβερὸν γίγνεται.
“Now the other so-called excellences of the soul are probably close to those of the body. They really 518e aren’t present beforehand, but are produced later by habit and practice. But the excellence of understanding, it seems, belongs above all to something more divine, which never loses its power, but becomes useful and beneficial, 519a or else useless and harmful, depending on the way it is turned.
ἢ οὔπω ἐννενόηκας, τῶν λεγομένων πονηρῶν μέν, σοφῶν δέ, ὡς δριμὺ μὲν βλέπει τὸ ψυχάριον καὶ ὀξέως διορᾷ ταῦτα ἐφʼ ἃ τέτραπται, ὡς οὐ φαύλην ἔχον τὴν ὄψιν, κακίᾳ δʼ ἠναγκασμένον ὑπηρετεῖν, ὥστε ὅσῳ ἂν ὀξύτερον βλέπῃ, τοσούτῳ πλείω κακὰ ἐργαζόμενον;
πάνυ μὲν οὖν, ἔφη.
“Or haven’t you ever noticed, with people who are said to be wicked but clever, how sharply their petty little soul sees, and how keenly it discerns the things it’s turned toward? Its sight isn’t poor, but it’s forced to serve badness, so that the more sharply it sees, the more harm it does.”
“Certainly,” he said.
τοῦτο μέντοι, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, τὸ τῆς τοιαύτης φύσεως εἰ ἐκ παιδὸς εὐθὺς κοπτόμενον περιεκόπη τὰς τῆς γενέσεως 519b συγγενεῖς ὥσπερ μολυβδίδας, αἳ δὴ ἐδωδαῖς τε καὶ τοιούτων ἡδοναῖς τε καὶ λιχνείαις προσφυεῖς γιγνόμεναι περὶ κάτω στρέφουσι τὴν τῆς ψυχῆς ὄψιν· ὧν εἰ ἀπαλλαγὲν περιεστρέφετο εἰς τὰ ἀληθῆ, καὶ ἐκεῖνα ἂν τὸ αὐτὸ τοῦτο τῶν αὐτῶν ἀνθρώπων ὀξύτατα ἑώρα, ὥσπερ καὶ ἐφʼ ἃ νῦν τέτραπται.
εἰκός γε, ἔφη.
“And yet,” I said, “suppose this part of such a nature had been hammered at from earliest childhood and struck free of the leaden weights, as it were, that are akin to becoming, 519b which fasten onto it through eating and the pleasures and greed of that sort and turn the soul’s vision downward. If it were freed of these and turned around toward what is true, this same part of the same people would see those things too most sharply, just as it sees the things it’s turned toward now.”
“It’s likely,” he said.
Why the philosophers must go back down
Socrates insists the philosophers must return to the cave and take their turn at ruling.
τί δέ; τόδε οὐκ εἰκός, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, καὶ ἀνάγκη ἐκ τῶν προειρημένων, μήτε τοὺς ἀπαιδεύτους καὶ ἀληθείας ἀπείρους 519c ἱκανῶς ἄν ποτε πόλιν ἐπιτροπεῦσαι, μήτε τοὺς ἐν παιδείᾳ ἐωμένους διατρίβειν διὰ τέλους, τοὺς μὲν ὅτι σκοπὸν ἐν τῷ βίῳ οὐκ ἔχουσιν ἕνα, οὗ στοχαζομένους δεῖ ἅπαντα πράττειν ἃ ἂν πράττωσιν ἰδίᾳ τε καὶ δημοσίᾳ, τοὺς δὲ ὅτι ἑκόντες εἶναι οὐ πράξουσιν, ἡγούμενοι ἐν μακάρων νήσοις ζῶντες ἔτι ἀπῳκίσθαι;
ἀληθῆ, ἔφη.
“Well then, isn’t this likely too,” I said, “and in fact necessary, given what we’ve said: that neither the uneducated, who have no experience of truth, 519c could ever govern a city adequately, nor those who are allowed to spend their whole lives in education? The first because they have no single aim in life at which everything they do, in private and in public, must be directed; the second because they won’t act if they can help it, believing they’ve already emigrated, while still alive, to the Isles of the Blessed.”
“True,” he said.
ἡμέτερον δὴ ἔργον, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, τῶν οἰκιστῶν τάς τε βελτίστας φύσεις ἀναγκάσαι ἀφικέσθαι πρὸς τὸ μάθημα ὃ ἐν τῷ πρόσθεν ἔφαμεν εἶναι μέγιστον, ἰδεῖν τε τὸ ἀγαθὸν 519d καὶ ἀναβῆναι ἐκείνην τὴν ἀνάβασιν, καὶ ἐπειδὰν ἀναβάντες ἱκανῶς ἴδωσι, μὴ ἐπιτρέπειν αὐτοῖς ὃ νῦν ἐπιτρέπεται.
τὸ ποῖον δή;
τὸ αὐτοῦ, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, καταμένειν καὶ μὴ ἐθέλειν πάλιν καταβαίνειν παρʼ ἐκείνους τοὺς δεσμώτας μηδὲ μετέχειν τῶν παρʼ ἐκείνοις πόνων τε καὶ τιμῶν, εἴτε φαυλότεραι εἴτε σπουδαιότεραι.
“Then it’s our job as founders,” I said, “to compel the best natures to reach the study we earlier called the greatest: to see the good 519d and make that ascent. And when they’ve made it and seen enough, we mustn’t allow them what is allowed now.”
“What’s that?”
“To stay there,” I said, “and refuse to go back down to those prisoners, or to share their labors and honors, whether these are of less worth or more serious.”
ἔπειτʼ, ἔφη, ἀδικήσομεν αὐτούς, καὶ ποιήσομεν χεῖρον ζῆν, δυνατὸν αὐτοῖς ὂν ἄμεινον; 519e
ἐπελάθου, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, πάλιν, ὦ φίλε, ὅτι νόμῳ οὐ τοῦτο μέλει, ὅπως ἕν τι γένος ἐν πόλει διαφερόντως εὖ πράξει, ἀλλʼ ἐν ὅλῃ τῇ πόλει τοῦτο μηχανᾶται ἐγγενέσθαι, συναρμόττων τοὺς πολίτας πειθοῖ τε καὶ ἀνάγκῃ, ποιῶν μεταδιδόναι 520a ἀλλήλοις τῆς ὠφελίας ἣν ἂν ἕκαστοι τὸ κοινὸν δυνατοὶ ὦσιν ὠφελεῖν καὶ αὐτὸς ἐμποιῶν τοιούτους ἄνδρας ἐν τῇ πόλει, οὐχ ἵνα ἀφιῇ τρέπεσθαι ὅπῃ ἕκαστος βούλεται, ἀλλʼ ἵνα καταχρῆται αὐτὸς αὐτοῖς ἐπὶ τὸν σύνδεσμον τῆς πόλεως.
“Then,” he said, “are we going to do them wrong, and make them live a worse life when a better one is open to them?” 519e
“You’ve forgotten again, my friend,” I said, “that the law isn’t concerned with making any one class in the city do exceptionally well. It contrives to bring this about in the city as a whole, fitting the citizens together by persuasion and compulsion, and making them share 520a with one another the benefit each group is able to bring to the community. And it produces such men in the city not so as to let each of them turn wherever he likes, but so as to use them itself to bind the city together.”
σκέψαι τοίνυν, εἶπον, ὦ Γλαύκων, ὅτι οὐδʼ ἀδικήσομεν τοὺς παρʼ ἡμῖν φιλοσόφους γιγνομένους, ἀλλὰ δίκαια πρὸς αὐτοὺς ἐροῦμεν, προσαναγκάζοντες τῶν ἄλλων ἐπιμελεῖσθαί τε καὶ φυλάττειν. ἐροῦμεν γὰρ ὅτι οἱ μὲν ἐν ταῖς ἄλλαις 520b πόλεσι τοιοῦτοι γιγνόμενοι εἰκότως οὐ μετέχουσι τῶν ἐν αὐταῖς πόνων· αὐτόματοι γὰρ ἐμφύονται ἀκούσης τῆς ἐν ἑκάστῃ πολιτείας, δίκην δʼ ἔχει τό γε αὐτοφυὲς μηδενὶ τροφὴν ὀφεῖλον μηδʼ ἐκτίνειν τῳ προθυμεῖσθαι τὰ τροφεῖα· ὑμᾶς δʼ ἡμεῖς ὑμῖν τε αὐτοῖς τῇ τε ἄλλῃ πόλει ὥσπερ ἐν σμήνεσιν ἡγεμόνας τε καὶ βασιλέας ἐγεννήσαμεν, ἄμεινόν τε καὶ τελεώτερον ἐκείνων πεπαιδευμένους καὶ μᾶλλον δυνατοὺς 520c ἀμφοτέρων μετέχειν.
“Consider, then, Glaucon,” I said, “that we won’t be doing wrong to those who become philosophers among us either. We’ll be saying just things to them when we compel them to care for and guard the others. We’ll tell them that those who turn out this way in other 520b cities are reasonable not to share in the labors there. They grow up spontaneously, against the will of the constitution in each city, and it’s just that what grows by itself, owing its upbringing to no one, shouldn’t be eager to repay the cost of that upbringing to anyone. ‘But you we have bred, both for yourselves and for the rest of the city, to be like leaders and kings in a beehive. You have been educated better and more completely than they have, and you are more capable 520c of taking part in both.
καταβατέον οὖν ἐν μέρει ἑκάστῳ εἰς τὴν τῶν ἄλλων συνοίκησιν καὶ συνεθιστέον τὰ σκοτεινὰ θεάσασθαι· συνεθιζόμενοι γὰρ μυρίῳ βέλτιον ὄψεσθε τῶν ἐκεῖ καὶ γνώσεσθε ἕκαστα τὰ εἴδωλα ἅττα ἐστὶ καὶ ὧν, διὰ τὸ τἀληθῆ ἑωρακέναι καλῶν τε καὶ δικαίων καὶ ἀγαθῶν πέρι. καὶ οὕτω ὕπαρ ἡμῖν καὶ ὑμῖν ἡ πόλις οἰκήσεται ἀλλʼ οὐκ ὄναρ, ὡς νῦν αἱ πολλαὶ ὑπὸ σκιαμαχούντων τε πρὸς ἀλλήλους καὶ στασιαζόντων περὶ τοῦ ἄρχειν 520d οἰκοῦνται, ὡς μεγάλου τινὸς ἀγαθοῦ ὄντος. τὸ δέ που ἀληθὲς ὧδʼ ἔχει· ἐν πόλει ᾗ ἥκιστα πρόθυμοι ἄρχειν οἱ μέλλοντες ἄρξειν, ταύτην ἄριστα καὶ ἀστασιαστότατα ἀνάγκη οἰκεῖσθαι, τὴν δʼ ἐναντίους ἄρχοντας σχοῦσαν ἐναντίως.
“‘So each of you in turn must go down to live with the others and get used to seeing things in the dark. Once you’re used to it, you’ll see ten thousand times better than the people there, and you’ll know what each of the images is and what it’s an image of, because you have seen the truth about beautiful and just and good things. And so the city will be governed by us and by you as a waking reality, not in a dream, the way most cities are governed now, by people who fight one another over shadows and form factions over ruling, 520d as if it were some great good. But the truth, surely, is this: the city where those who are to rule are least eager to rule must be governed best and with least faction, and the city that gets the opposite kind of rulers must be governed in the opposite way.’”
πάνυ μὲν οὖν, ἔφη.
ἀπειθήσουσιν οὖν ἡμῖν οἴει οἱ τρόφιμοι ταῦτʼ ἀκούοντες, καὶ οὐκ ἐθελήσουσιν συμπονεῖν ἐν τῇ πόλει ἕκαστοι ἐν μέρει, τὸν δὲ πολὺν χρόνον μετʼ ἀλλήλων οἰκεῖν ἐν τῷ καθαρῷ; 520e
ἀδύνατον, ἔφη· δίκαια γὰρ δὴ δικαίοις ἐπιτάξομεν. παντὸς μὴν μᾶλλον ὡς ἐπʼ ἀναγκαῖον αὐτῶν ἕκαστος εἶσι τὸ ἄρχειν, τοὐναντίον τῶν νῦν ἐν ἑκάστῃ πόλει ἀρχόντων.
“Certainly,” he said.
“Then do you think our pupils will disobey us when they hear this, and refuse to take their turn sharing the labors of the city, while spending most of their time living with one another in the pure region?” 520e
“Impossible,” he said. “We’ll be giving just orders to just people. But each of them will certainly go to rule as to something necessary—the opposite of those who rule in every city now.”
οὕτω γὰρ ἔχει, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, ὦ ἑταῖρε· εἰ μὲν βίον ἐξευρήσεις 521a ἀμείνω τοῦ ἄρχειν τοῖς μέλλουσιν ἄρξειν, ἔστι σοι δυνατὴ γενέσθαι πόλις εὖ οἰκουμένη· ἐν μόνῃ γὰρ αὐτῇ ἄρξουσιν οἱ τῷ ὄντι πλούσιοι, οὐ χρυσίου ἀλλʼ οὗ δεῖ τὸν εὐδαίμονα πλουτεῖν, ζωῆς ἀγαθῆς τε καὶ ἔμφρονος. εἰ δὲ πτωχοὶ καὶ πεινῶντες ἀγαθῶν ἰδίων ἐπὶ τὰ δημόσια ἴασιν, ἐντεῦθεν οἰόμενοι τἀγαθὸν δεῖν ἁρπάζειν, οὐκ ἔστι· περιμάχητον γὰρ τὸ ἄρχειν γιγνόμενον, οἰκεῖος ὢν καὶ ἔνδον ὁ τοιοῦτος πόλεμος αὐτούς τε ἀπόλλυσι καὶ τὴν ἄλλην πόλιν.
ἀληθέστατα, ἔφη. 521b
“That’s how it is, my friend,” I said. “If you can find a life better 521a than ruling for those who are going to rule, a well-governed city becomes possible for you. For only in that city will the truly rich rule—rich not in gold but in what a happy person must be rich in: a good and sensible life. But if beggars, starved of goods of their own, go into public affairs thinking that’s where they must grab the good from, it isn’t possible. Ruling becomes something to fight over, and a war like that, a war within the household, destroys them and the rest of the city too.”
“Very true,” he said. 521b
ἔχεις οὖν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, βίον ἄλλον τινὰ πολιτικῶν ἀρχῶν καταφρονοῦντα ἢ τὸν τῆς ἀληθινῆς φιλοσοφίας;
οὐ μὰ τὸν Δία, ἦ δʼ ὅς.
ἀλλὰ μέντοι δεῖ γε μὴ ἐραστὰς τοῦ ἄρχειν ἰέναι ἐπʼ αὐτό· εἰ δὲ μή, οἵ γε ἀντερασταὶ μαχοῦνται.
πῶς δʼ οὔ;
τίνας οὖν ἄλλους ἀναγκάσεις ἰέναι ἐπὶ φυλακὴν τῆς πόλεως ἢ οἳ περὶ τούτων τε φρονιμώτατοι διʼ ὧν ἄριστα πόλις οἰκεῖται, ἔχουσί τε τιμὰς ἄλλας καὶ βίον ἀμείνω τοῦ πολιτικοῦ;
οὐδένας ἄλλους, ἔφη. 521c
“Then do you know of any life that looks down on political office,” I said, “other than the life of true philosophy?”
“No, by Zeus,” he said.
“But those who go into ruling mustn’t be in love with it. Otherwise their rival lovers will fight them.”
“Of course.”
“Then whom else will you compel to take on guarding the city, if not those who have the best understanding of what makes a city well governed, and who have other honors and a better life than the political one?”
“No one else,” he said. 521c
The studies that draw the soul upward
Socrates sets out arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and harmonics as studies that turn the mind toward being.
βούλει οὖν τοῦτʼ ἤδη σκοπῶμεν, τίνα τρόπον οἱ τοιοῦτοι ἐγγενήσονται, καὶ πῶς τις ἀνάξει αὐτοὺς εἰς φῶς, ὥσπερ ἐξ Ἅιδου λέγονται δή τινες εἰς θεοὺς ἀνελθεῖν;
πῶς γὰρ οὐ βούλομαι; ἔφη.
τοῦτο δή, ὡς ἔοικεν, οὐκ ὀστράκου ἂν εἴη περιστροφή, ἀλλὰ ψυχῆς περιαγωγὴ ἐκ νυκτερινῆς τινος ἡμέρας εἰς ἀληθινήν, τοῦ ὄντος οὖσαν ἐπάνοδον, ἣν δὴ φιλοσοφίαν ἀληθῆ φήσομεν εἶναι.
πάνυ μὲν οὖν.
οὐκοῦν δεῖ σκοπεῖσθαι τί τῶν μαθημάτων ἔχει τοιαύτην 521d δύναμιν;
πῶς γὰρ οὔ;
“Then would you like us to consider now how such people will come to be, and how someone will lead them up into the light, as some are said to have gone up from Hades to the gods?”
“Of course I would,” he said.
“This, it seems, wouldn’t be the flip of a shell. It is the turning around of a soul from a day that is a kind of night to the true day: an ascent to what is, which we’ll say is true philosophy.”
“Certainly.”
“So we must consider which of the studies has that kind of 521d power?”
“Of course.”
τί ἂν οὖν εἴη, ὦ Γλαύκων, μάθημα ψυχῆς ὁλκὸν ἀπὸ τοῦ γιγνομένου ἐπὶ τὸ ὄν; τόδε δʼ ἐννοῶ λέγων ἅμα· οὐκ ἀθλητὰς μέντοι πολέμου ἔφαμεν τούτους ἀναγκαῖον εἶναι νέους ὄντας;
ἔφαμεν γάρ.
δεῖ ἄρα καὶ τοῦτο προσέχειν τὸ μάθημα ὃ ζητοῦμεν πρὸς ἐκείνῳ.
τὸ ποῖον;
μὴ ἄχρηστον πολεμικοῖς ἀνδράσιν εἶναι.
δεῖ μέντοι, ἔφη, εἴπερ οἷόν τε.
γυμναστικῇ μὴν καὶ μουσικῇ ἔν γε τῷ πρόσθεν ἐπαιδεύοντο 521e ἡμῖν.
ἦν ταῦτα, ἔφη.
“So what study would draw the soul away from what comes to be toward what is, Glaucon? And as I say this, something else occurs to me. Didn’t we say that these people must be athletes of war when they’re young?”
“We did.”
“Then the study we’re looking for must have this feature in addition to that one.”
“What feature?”
“It mustn’t be useless to men of war.”
“It must,” he said, “if that’s possible.”
“Now earlier we educated them in physical training and in music and poetry.” 521e
“We did,” he said.
καὶ γυμναστικὴ μέν που περὶ γιγνόμενον καὶ ἀπολλύμενον τετεύτακεν· σώματος γὰρ αὔξης καὶ φθίσεως. ἐπιστατεῖ.
φαίνεται.
τοῦτο μὲν δὴ οὐκ ἂν εἴη ὃ ζητοῦμεν μάθημα.
οὐ γάρ.
ἀλλʼ ἆρα μουσικὴ ὅσην τὸ πρότερον διήλθομεν;
“And physical training, I take it, is concerned with what comes to be and passes away, since it presides over the growth and decay of the body.”
“So it appears.”
“Then it wouldn’t be the study we’re looking for.”
“No.”
“What about music and poetry, as far as we described them before?”
ἀλλʼ ἦν ἐκείνη γʼ, ἔφη, ἀντίστροφος τῆς γυμναστικῆς, εἰ μέμνησαι, ἔθεσι παιδεύουσα τοὺς φύλακας, κατά τε ἁρμονίαν εὐαρμοστίαν τινά, οὐκ ἐπιστήμην, παραδιδοῦσα, καὶ κατὰ ῥυθμὸν εὐρυθμίαν, ἔν τε τοῖς λόγοις ἕτερα τούτων ἀδελφὰ ἔθη ἄττα ἔχουσα, καὶ ὅσοι μυθώδεις τῶν λόγων καὶ ὅσοι ἀληθινώτεροι ἦσαν· μάθημα δὲ πρὸς τοιοῦτόν τι 522b ἄγον, οἷον σὺ νῦν ζητεῖς, οὐδὲν ἦν ἐν αὐτῇ.
ἀκριβέστατα, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, ἀναμιμνῄσκεις με· τῷ γὰρ ὄντι τοιοῦτον οὐδὲν εἶχεν. ἀλλʼ, ὦ δαιμόνιε Γλαύκων, τί ἂν εἴη τοιοῦτον; αἵ τε γὰρ τέχναι βάναυσοί που ἅπασαι ἔδοξαν εἶναι—
“But that was the counterpart of physical training,” he said, “if you remember. It educated the guardians through habits. Through harmony it passed on a certain harmoniousness, not knowledge, and through rhythm a certain rhythmicalness; and in its stories, both the more mythical ones and the more truthful, it had other habits akin to these. But there was nothing in it that led toward anything 522b like what you’re looking for now.”
“You remind me very precisely,” I said. “It really had nothing of the kind. But then, my wonderful Glaucon, what study would be like that? The crafts all seemed to be menial—”
πῶς δʼ οὔ; καὶ μὴν τί ἔτʼ ἄλλο λείπεται μάθημα, μουσικῆς καὶ γυμναστικῆς καὶ τῶν τεχνῶν κεχωρισμένον;
φέρε, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, εἰ μηδὲν ἔτι ἐκτὸς τούτων ἔχομεν λαβεῖν, τῶν ἐπὶ πάντα τεινόντων τι λάβωμεν.
τὸ ποῖον; 522c
οἷον τοῦτο τὸ κοινόν, ᾧ πᾶσαι προσχρῶνται τέχναι τε καὶ διάνοιαι καὶ ἐπιστῆμαι—ὃ καὶ παντὶ ἐν πρώτοις ἀνάγκη μανθάνειν.
τὸ ποῖον; ἔφη.
“Of course they did. And yet what other study is left, apart from music and poetry, physical training and the crafts?”
“Come on,” I said. “If we can’t find anything beyond these, let’s take something that extends to all of them.”
“Like what?” 522c
“Like this common thing that all crafts and kinds of thought and knowledge make use of—which everyone has to learn among the first things.”
“What is it?” he said.
τὸ φαῦλον τοῦτο, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, τὸ ἕν τε καὶ τὰ δύο καὶ τὰ τρία διαγιγνώσκειν· λέγω δὲ αὐτὸ ἐν κεφαλαίῳ ἀριθμόν τε καὶ λογισμόν. ἢ οὐχ οὕτω περὶ τούτων ἔχει, ὡς πᾶσα τέχνη τε καὶ ἐπιστήμη ἀναγκάζεται αὐτῶν μέτοχος γίγνεσθαι;
καὶ μάλα, ἔφη.
οὐκοῦν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, καὶ ἡ πολεμική;
πολλή, ἔφη, ἀνάγκη. 522d
“This humble business,” I said, “of telling one and two and three apart. In short, I mean number and calculation. Isn’t it true that every craft and every kind of knowledge is compelled to take part in them?”
“Very much so,” he said.
“Then the art of war too?” I said.
“It absolutely must,” he said. 522d
παγγέλοιον γοῦν, ἔφην, στρατηγὸν Ἀγαμέμνονα ἐν ταῖς τραγῳδίαις Παλαμήδης ἑκάστοτε ἀποφαίνει. ἢ οὐκ ἐννενόηκας ὅτι φησὶν ἀριθμὸν εὑρὼν τάς τε τάξεις τῷ στρατοπέδῳ καταστῆσαι ἐν Ἰλίῳ καὶ ἐξαριθμῆσαι ναῦς τε καὶ τἆλλα πάντα, ὡς πρὸ τοῦ ἀναριθμήτων ὄντων καὶ τοῦ Ἀγαμέμνονος, ὡς ἔοικεν, οὐδʼ ὅσους πόδας εἶχεν εἰδότος, εἴπερ ἀριθμεῖν μὴ ἠπίστατο; καίτοι ποῖόν τινʼ αὐτὸν οἴει στρατηγὸν εἶναι;
ἄτοπόν τινʼ, ἔφη, ἔγωγε, εἰ ἦν τοῦτʼ ἀληθές. 522e
ἄλλο τι οὖν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, μάθημα ἀναγκαῖον πολεμικῷ ἀνδρὶ θήσομεν λογίζεσθαί τε καὶ ἀριθμεῖν δύνασθαι;
“At any rate,” I said, “in the tragedies Palamedes keeps showing Agamemnon up as a thoroughly ridiculous general. Haven’t you noticed? He says that he invented number and then drew up the ranks of the army at Troy and counted the ships and everything else, as if they had never been counted before, and Agamemnon, apparently, didn’t even know how many feet he had, if he really didn’t know how to count. And yet what sort of general do you think he’d be?”
“A strange one,” he said, “if that were true.” 522e
“Then shall we set it down,” I said, “as a study necessary for a man of war to be able to calculate and count?”
πάντων γʼ, ἔφη, μάλιστα, εἰ καὶ ὁτιοῦν μέλλει τάξεων ἐπαΐειν, μᾶλλον δʼ εἰ καὶ ἄνθρωπος ἔσεσθαι.
ἐννοεῖς οὖν, εἶπον, περὶ τοῦτο τὸ μάθημα ὅπερ ἐγώ;
τὸ ποῖον;
κινδυνεύει τῶν πρὸς τὴν νόησιν ἀγόντων φύσει εἶναι ὧν ζητοῦμεν, χρῆσθαι δʼ οὐδεὶς αὐτῷ ὀρθῶς, ἑλκτικῷ ὄντι παντάπασι πρὸς οὐσίαν.
πῶς, ἔφη, λέγεις;
ἐγὼ πειράσομαι, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, τό γʼ ἐμοὶ δοκοῦν δηλῶσαι. ἃ γὰρ διαιροῦμαι παρʼ ἐμαυτῷ ἀγωγά τε εἶναι οἷ λέγομεν καὶ μή, συνθεατὴς γενόμενος σύμφαθι ἢ ἄπειπε, ἵνα καὶ τοῦτο σαφέστερον ἴδωμεν εἰ ἔστιν οἷον μαντεύομαι.
“More than anything,” he said, “if he’s going to understand anything at all about drawing up troops—or rather, if he’s going to be a human being at all.”
“Then do you notice the same thing about this study that I do?” I said.
“What’s that?”
“It’s probably one of the studies we’re looking for, those that lead naturally to understanding. But no one uses it correctly, though it is entirely able to draw us toward being.”
“What do you mean?” he said.
“I’ll try to show you what I think,” I said. “As I distinguish in my own mind the things that lead where we said and those that don’t, look along with me and agree or disagree, so that we can see more clearly whether it is as I suspect.”
δείκνυʼ, ἔφη.
δείκνυμι δή, εἶπον, εἰ καθορᾷς, τὰ μὲν ἐν ταῖς αἰσθήσεσιν 523b οὐ παρακαλοῦντα τὴν νόησιν εἰς ἐπίσκεψιν, ὡς ἱκανῶς ὑπὸ τῆς αἰσθήσεως κρινόμενα, τὰ δὲ παντάπασι διακελευόμενα ἐκείνην ἐπισκέψασθαι, ὡς τῆς αἰσθήσεως οὐδὲν ὑγιὲς ποιούσης.
τὰ πόρρωθεν, ἔφη, φαινόμενα δῆλον ὅτι λέγεις καὶ τὰ ἐσκιαγραφημένα.
οὐ πάνυ, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, ἔτυχες οὗ λέγω.
ποῖα μήν, ἔφη, λέγεις;
“Show me,” he said.
“I’ll show you, then,” I said, “if you can make it out. Some objects of perception 523b don’t summon understanding to examine them, since perception judges them adequately; others urge it in every way to examine them, since perception produces nothing sound.”
“You obviously mean things seen at a distance,” he said, “and illusionistic paintings.”
“You haven’t quite hit on what I mean,” I said.
“Then what do you mean?” he said.
τὰ μὲν οὐ παρακαλοῦντα, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, ὅσα μὴ ἐκβαίνει 523c εἰς ἐναντίαν αἴσθησιν ἅμα· τὰ δʼ ἐκβαίνοντα ὡς παρακαλοῦντα τίθημι, ἐπειδὰν ἡ αἴσθησις μηδὲν μᾶλλον τοῦτο ἢ τὸ ἐναντίον δηλοῖ, εἴτʼ ἐγγύθεν προσπίπτουσα εἴτε πόρρωθεν. ὧδε δὲ ἃ λέγω σαφέστερον εἴσῃ. οὗτοί φαμεν τρεῖς ἂν εἶεν δάκτυλοι, ὅ τε σμικρότατος καὶ ὁ δεύτερος καὶ ὁ μέσος.
πάνυ γʼ, ἔφη.
ὡς ἐγγύθεν τοίνυν ὁρωμένους λέγοντός μου διανοοῦ. ἀλλά μοι περὶ αὐτῶν τόδε σκόπει.
τὸ ποῖον;
“The ones that don’t summon it,” I said, “are those that don’t give rise 523c to the opposite perception at the same time. The ones that do, I count as summoning, since in their case perception makes this no more evident than its opposite, whether it meets the thing close up or from far away. You’ll understand what I mean more clearly this way. Here, we’d say, are three fingers: the smallest, the second, and the middle one.”
“Of course,” he said.
“Take it that I’m speaking of them as seen close up. Now here’s what I want you to consider about them.”
“What?”
δάκτυλος μέν που αὐτῶν φαίνεται ὁμοίως ἕκαστος, καὶ 523d ταύτῃ γε οὐδὲν διαφέρει, ἐάντε ἐν μέσῳ ὁρᾶται ἐάντʼ ἐπʼ ἐσχάτῳ, ἐάντε λευκὸς ἐάντε μέλας, ἐάντε παχὺς ἐάντε λεπτός, καὶ πᾶν ὅτι τοιοῦτον. ἐν πᾶσι γὰρ τούτοις οὐκ ἀναγκάζεται τῶν πολλῶν ἡ ψυχὴ τὴν νόησιν ἐπερέσθαι τί ποτʼ ἐστὶ δάκτυλος· οὐδαμοῦ γὰρ ἡ ὄψις αὐτῇ ἅμα ἐσήμηνεν τὸ δάκτυλον τοὐναντίον ἢ δάκτυλον εἶναι.
οὐ γὰρ οὖν, ἔφη.
οὐκοῦν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, εἰκότως τό γε τοιοῦτον νοήσεως οὐκ 523e ἂν παρακλητικὸν οὐδʼ ἐγερτικὸν εἴη.
εἰκότως.
“Each of them appears equally to be a finger, and 523d in that respect it makes no difference whether it’s seen in the middle or at the end, whether it’s white or black, thick or thin, or anything of that kind. In all these cases the soul of most people isn’t compelled to ask understanding what a finger is, since sight never indicated to it at the same time that the finger was the opposite of a finger.”
“No, it didn’t,” he said.
“So naturally,” I said, “a thing like that wouldn’t 523e summon or awaken understanding.”
“Naturally.”
τί δὲ δή; τὸ μέγεθος αὐτῶν καὶ τὴν σμικρότητα ἡ ὄψις ἆρα ἱκανῶς ὁρᾷ, καὶ οὐδὲν αὐτῇ διαφέρει ἐν μέσῳ τινὰ αὐτῶν κεῖσθαι ἢ ἐπʼ ἐσχάτῳ; καὶ ὡσαύτως πάχος καὶ λεπτότητα ἢ μαλακότητα καὶ σκληρότητα ἡ ἁφή; καὶ αἱ ἄλλαι αἰσθήσεις ἆρʼ οὐκ ἐνδεῶς τὰ τοιαῦτα δηλοῦσιν;
ἢ 524a ὧδε ποιεῖ ἑκάστη αὐτῶν· πρῶτον μὲν ἡ ἐπὶ τῷ σκληρῷ τεταγμένη αἴσθησις ἠνάγκασται καὶ ἐπὶ τῷ μαλακῷ τετάχθαι, καὶ παραγγέλλει τῇ ψυχῇ ὡς ταὐτὸν σκληρόν τε καὶ μαλακὸν αἰσθανομένη;
οὕτως, ἔφη.
“But what about this? Does sight see their largeness and smallness adequately, and does it make no difference to it whether one of them lies in the middle or at the end? And the same with touch, for thickness and thinness, or softness and hardness? And don’t the other senses reveal such things deficiently?
“Doesn’t 524a each of them work like this? First, the sense assigned to the hard is necessarily assigned to the soft as well, and it reports to the soul that it perceives the same thing as both hard and soft?”
“That’s so,” he said.
οὐκοῦν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, ἀναγκαῖον ἔν γε τοῖς τοιούτοις αὖ τὴν ψυχὴν ἀπορεῖν τί ποτε σημαίνει αὕτη ἡ αἴσθησις τὸ σκληρόν, εἴπερ τὸ αὐτὸ καὶ μαλακὸν λέγει, καὶ ἡ τοῦ κούφου καὶ ἡ τοῦ βαρέος, τί τὸ κοῦφον καὶ βαρύ, εἰ τό τε βαρὺ κοῦφον καὶ τὸ κοῦφον βαρὺ σημαίνει; 524b
καὶ γάρ, ἔφη, αὗταί γε ἄτοποι τῇ ψυχῇ αἱ ἑρμηνεῖαι καὶ ἐπισκέψεως δεόμεναι.
“Then in such cases,” I said, “the soul must be puzzled about what this perception means by hard, if it says the same thing is soft too; and about what the perception of light and heavy means by light and heavy, if it indicates that the heavy is light and the light heavy?” 524b
“Yes,” he said, “these reports are strange to the soul and need examining.”
εἰκότως ἄρα, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, ἐν τοῖς τοιούτοις πρῶτον μὲν πειρᾶται λογισμόν τε καὶ νόησιν ψυχὴ παρακαλοῦσα ἐπισκοπεῖν εἴτε ἓν εἴτε δύο ἐστὶν ἕκαστα τῶν εἰσαγγελλομένων.
πῶς δʼ οὔ;
οὐκοῦν ἐὰν δύο φαίνηται, ἕτερόν τε καὶ ἓν ἑκάτερον φαίνεται;
ναί.
εἰ ἄρα ἓν ἑκάτερον, ἀμφότερα δὲ δύο, τά γε δύο κεχωρισμένα 524c νοήσει· οὐ γὰρ ἂν ἀχώριστά γε δύο ἐνόει, ἀλλʼ ἕν.
ὀρθῶς.
μέγα μὴν καὶ ὄψις καὶ σμικρὸν ἑώρα, φαμέν, ἀλλʼ οὐ κεχωρισμένον ἀλλὰ συγκεχυμένον τι. ἦ γάρ;
ναί.
“So naturally,” I said, “in cases like these the soul first calls on calculation and understanding and tries to examine whether each of the things reported to it is one or two.”
“Of course.”
“And if they appear to be two, doesn’t each appear to be different, and one?”
“Yes.”
“So if each is one, and both together are two, it will understand the two as separate, 524c since it wouldn’t understand things that weren’t separate as two, but as one.”
“Right.”
“Sight, too, saw large and small, we say, but not as separate—as something mixed together. Isn’t that so?”
“Yes.”
διὰ δὲ τὴν τούτου σαφήνειαν μέγα αὖ καὶ σμικρὸν ἡ νόησις ἠναγκάσθη ἰδεῖν, οὐ συγκεχυμένα ἀλλὰ διωρισμένα, τοὐναντίον ἢ ʼκείνη.
ἀληθῆ.
οὐκοῦν ἐντεῦθέν ποθεν πρῶτον ἐπέρχεται ἐρέσθαι ἡμῖν τί οὖν ποτʼ ἐστὶ τὸ μέγα αὖ καὶ τὸ σμικρόν;
παντάπασι μὲν οὖν.
καὶ οὕτω δὴ τὸ μὲν νοητόν, τὸ δʼ ὁρατὸν ἐκαλέσαμεν. 524d
ὀρθότατʼ, ἔφη.
“And to get clear about this, understanding in turn was compelled to see large and small, not mixed together but distinguished, the opposite of the way sight saw them.”
“True.”
“And isn’t it from here that it first occurs to us to ask what, then, the large is, and the small?”
“Absolutely.”
“And that’s how we came to call the one intelligible and the other visible.” 524d
“Quite right,” he said.
ταῦτα τοίνυν καὶ ἄρτι ἐπεχείρουν λέγειν, ὡς τὰ μὲν παρακλητικὰ τῆς διανοίας ἐστί, τὰ δʼ οὔ, ἃ μὲν εἰς τὴν αἴσθησιν ἅμα τοῖς ἐναντίοις ἑαυτοῖς ἐμπίπτει, παρακλητικὰ ὁριζόμενος, ὅσα δὲ μή, οὐκ ἐγερτικὰ τῆς νοήσεως.
μανθάνω τοίνυν ἤδη, ἔφη, καὶ δοκεῖ μοι οὕτω.
τί οὖν; ἀριθμός τε καὶ τὸ ἓν ποτέρων δοκεῖ εἶναι;
οὐ συννοῶ, ἔφη.
“That’s what I was trying to say just now: that some things summon thought and others don’t. Those that strike perception together with their own opposites I defined as summoning; those that don’t, as not awakening understanding.”
“Now I understand,” he said, “and I think so too.”
“Well then, which of the two do number and the one seem to belong to?”
“I can’t work it out,” he said.
ἀλλʼ ἐκ τῶν προειρημένων, ἔφην, ἀναλογίζου. εἰ μὲν γὰρ ἱκανῶς αὐτὸ καθʼ αὑτὸ ὁρᾶται ἢ ἄλλῃ τινὶ αἰσθήσει 524e λαμβάνεται τὸ ἕν, οὐκ ἂν ὁλκὸν εἴη ἐπὶ τὴν οὐσίαν, ὥσπερ ἐπὶ τοῦ δακτύλου ἐλέγομεν·
“Then reason it out from what we’ve said,” I said. “If the one is adequately seen itself by itself, or grasped by some other 524e sense, it wouldn’t draw us toward being, as we said about the finger.
εἰ δʼ ἀεί τι αὐτῷ ἅμα ὁρᾶται ἐναντίωμα, ὥστε μηδὲν μᾶλλον ἓν ἢ καὶ τοὐναντίον φαίνεσθαι, τοῦ ἐπικρινοῦντος δὴ δέοι ἂν ἤδη καὶ ἀναγκάζοιτʼ ἂν ἐν αὐτῷ ψυχὴ ἀπορεῖν καὶ ζητεῖν, κινοῦσα ἐν ἑαυτῇ τὴν ἔννοιαν, καὶ ἀνερωτᾶν τί ποτέ ἐστιν αὐτὸ τὸ ἕν, καὶ οὕτω τῶν 525a ἀγωγῶν ἂν εἴη καὶ μεταστρεπτικῶν ἐπὶ τὴν τοῦ ὄντος θέαν ἡ περὶ τὸ ἓν μάθησις.
ἀλλὰ μέντοι, ἔφη, τοῦτό γʼ ἔχει οὐχ ἥκιστα ἡ περὶ αὐτὸ ὄψις· ἅμα γὰρ ταὐτὸν ὡς ἕν τε ὁρῶμεν καὶ ὡς ἄπειρα τὸ πλῆθος.
“But if something opposed to it is always seen along with it, so that it appears no more one than the opposite, then there would at once be need of something to judge between them. The soul would be compelled to be puzzled about it and to search, stirring up its thinking within itself, and to ask what the one itself is. In that way the study of the one would be among those 525a that lead us and turn us around toward the contemplation of what is.”
“Well,” he said, “sight of it has exactly this feature, more than anything. We see the same thing at once as one and as unlimited in number.”
οὐκοῦν εἴπερ τὸ ἕν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, καὶ σύμπας ἀριθμὸς ταὐτὸν πέπονθε τοῦτο;
πῶς δʼ οὔ;
ἀλλὰ μὴν λογιστική τε καὶ ἀριθμητικὴ περὶ ἀριθμὸν πᾶσα.
καὶ μάλα. 525b
ταῦτα δέ γε φαίνεται ἀγωγὰ πρὸς ἀλήθειαν.
ὑπερφυῶς μὲν οὖν.
ὧν ζητοῦμεν ἄρα, ὡς ἔοικε, μαθημάτων ἂν εἴη· πολεμικῷ μὲν γὰρ διὰ τὰς τάξεις ἀναγκαῖον μαθεῖν ταῦτα, φιλοσόφῳ δὲ διὰ τὸ τῆς οὐσίας ἁπτέον εἶναι γενέσεως ἐξαναδύντι, ἢ μηδέποτε λογιστικῷ γενέσθαι.
ἔστι ταῦτʼ, ἔφη.
ὁ δέ γε ἡμέτερος φύλαξ πολεμικός τε καὶ φιλόσοφος τυγχάνει ὤν.
“And if that’s true of the one,” I said, “isn’t the same true of all number?”
“Of course.”
“But calculation and arithmetic are entirely about number.”
“Very much so.” 525b
“And they clearly lead toward truth.”
“Extraordinarily so.”
“Then it seems they would be among the studies we’re looking for. A man of war has to learn them to draw up his troops, and a philosopher because he must rise up out of becoming and grasp being, or else never become skilled at calculation.”
“That’s so,” he said.
“And our guardian happens to be both a man of war and a philosopher.”
τί μήν;
προσῆκον δὴ τὸ μάθημα ἂν εἴη, ὦ Γλαύκων, νομοθετῆσαι καὶ πείθειν τοὺς μέλλοντας ἐν τῇ πόλει τῶν μεγίστων 525c μεθέξειν ἐπὶ λογιστικὴν ἰέναι καὶ ἀνθάπτεσθαι αὐτῆς μὴ ἰδιωτικῶς, ἀλλʼ ἕως ἂν ἐπὶ θέαν τῆς τῶν ἀριθμῶν φύσεως ἀφίκωνται τῇ νοήσει αὐτῇ, οὐκ ὠνῆς οὐδὲ πράσεως χάριν ὡς ἐμπόρους ἢ καπήλους μελετῶντας, ἀλλʼ ἕνεκα πολέμου τε καὶ αὐτῆς τῆς ψυχῆς ῥᾳστώνης μεταστροφῆς ἀπὸ γενέσεως ἐπʼ ἀλήθειάν τε καὶ οὐσίαν.
κάλλιστʼ, ἔφη, λέγεις.
“Of course.”
“Then it would be fitting, Glaucon, to prescribe this study by law, and to persuade those who are going to share in the greatest 525c matters in the city to go in for calculation and take it up, not as amateurs, but until they arrive at the contemplation of the nature of numbers by understanding itself. They shouldn’t practice it for buying and selling, like merchants or shopkeepers, but for the sake of war, and to make it easier for the soul itself to turn from becoming to truth and being.”
“Very well said,” he said.
καὶ μήν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, νῦν καὶ ἐννοῶ, ῥηθέντος τοῦ περὶ 525d τοὺς λογισμοὺς μαθήματος, ὡς κομψόν ἐστι καὶ πολλαχῇ χρήσιμον ἡμῖν πρὸς ὃ βουλόμεθα, ἐὰν τοῦ γνωρίζειν ἕνεκά τις αὐτὸ ἐπιτηδεύῃ ἀλλὰ μὴ τοῦ καπηλεύειν.
πῇ δή; ἔφη.
“And now that the study of calculation has been mentioned,” I said, “I notice 525d how subtle it is, and how useful in many ways for what we want, if one pursues it for the sake of knowing rather than trading.”
“How so?” he said.
τοῦτό γε, ὃ νυνδὴ ἐλέγομεν, ὡς σφόδρα ἄνω ποι ἄγει τὴν ψυχὴν καὶ περὶ αὐτῶν τῶν ἀριθμῶν ἀναγκάζει διαλέγεσθαι, οὐδαμῇ ἀποδεχόμενον ἐάν τις αὐτῇ ὁρατὰ ἢ ἁπτὰ σώματα ἔχοντας ἀριθμοὺς προτεινόμενος διαλέγηται. οἶσθα γάρ που τοὺς περὶ ταῦτα δεινοὺς αὖ ὡς, ἐάν τις αὐτὸ τὸ 525e ἓν ἐπιχειρῇ τῷ λόγῳ τέμνειν, καταγελῶσί τε καὶ οὐκ ἀποδέχονται, ἀλλʼ ἐὰν σὺ κερματίζῃς αὐτό, ἐκεῖνοι πολλαπλασιοῦσιν, εὐλαβούμενοι μή ποτε φανῇ τὸ ἓν μὴ ἓν ἀλλὰ πολλὰ μόρια.
ἀληθέστατα, ἔφη, λέγεις.
“In the way we just described. It leads the soul forcefully upward, and compels it to discuss numbers themselves, never accepting it if someone offers it numbers that have visible or tangible bodies. You know, surely, how experts in the subject behave: if someone tries to divide the one itself 525e in argument, they laugh at him and won’t accept it. If you cut it up into small change, they multiply it, taking care that the one should never appear to be not one but many parts.”
“Very true,” he said.
τί οὖν οἴει, ὦ Γλαύκων, εἴ τις ἔροιτο αὐτούς· “ὦ θαυμάσιοι, περὶ ποίων ἀριθμῶν διαλέγεσθε, ἐν οἷς τὸ ἓν οἷον ὑμεῖς ἀξιοῦτέ ἐστιν, ἴσον τε ἕκαστον πᾶν παντὶ καὶ οὐδὲ σμικρὸν διαφέρον, μόριόν τε ἔχον ἐν ἑαυτῷ οὐδέν;” τί ἂν οἴει αὐτοὺς ἀποκρίνασθαι;
τοῦτο ἔγωγε, ὅτι περὶ τούτων λέγουσιν ὧν διανοηθῆναι μόνον ἐγχωρεῖ, ἄλλως δʼ οὐδαμῶς μεταχειρίζεσθαι δυνατόν.
ὁρᾷς οὖν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, ὦ φίλε, ὅτι τῷ ὄντι ἀναγκαῖον 526b ἡμῖν κινδυνεύει εἶναι τὸ μάθημα, ἐπειδὴ φαίνεταί γε προσαναγκάζον αὐτῇ τῇ νοήσει χρῆσθαι τὴν ψυχὴν ἐπʼ αὐτὴν τὴν ἀλήθειαν;
“Then what do you think, Glaucon, if someone asked them, ‘My remarkable friends, what sort of numbers are you discussing, in which the one is as you claim—each one equal to every other one, without the slightest difference, and having no parts within itself?’ What do you think they’d answer?”
“This, I think: that they’re talking about numbers that can only be thought, and can’t be handled in any other way.”
“So you see, my friend,” I said, “that this study really does seem necessary 526b for us, since it clearly compels the soul to use understanding itself to reach the truth itself?”
καὶ μὲν δή, ἔφη, σφόδρα γε ποιεῖ αὐτό.
τί δέ; τόδε ἤδη ἐπεσκέψω, ὡς οἵ τε φύσει λογιστικοὶ εἰς πάντα τὰ μαθήματα ὡς ἔπος εἰπεῖν ὀξεῖς φύονται, οἵ τε βραδεῖς, ἂν ἐν τούτῳ παιδευθῶσιν καὶ γυμνάσωνται, κἂν μηδὲν ἄλλο ὠφεληθῶσιν, ὅμως εἴς γε τὸ ὀξύτεροι αὐτοὶ αὑτῶν γίγνεσθαι πάντες ἐπιδιδόασιν;
ἔστιν, ἔφη, οὕτω. 526c
καὶ μήν, ὡς ἐγᾦμαι, ἅ γε μείζω πόνον παρέχει μανθάνοντι καὶ μελετῶντι, οὐκ ἂν ῥᾳδίως οὐδὲ πολλὰ ἂν εὕροις ὡς τοῦτο.
οὐ γὰρ οὖν.
“It certainly does that,” he said.
“Well, and have you ever noticed that those who are naturally good at calculation are, so to speak, naturally quick at all studies, and that slow people, if they’re educated and exercised in it, even if they get no other benefit, all improve at least in becoming quicker than they were?”
“That’s so,” he said. 526c
“And I don’t think you’d easily find many studies that take more effort to learn and practice than this one.”
“No, you wouldn’t.”
πάντων δὴ ἕνεκα τούτων οὐκ ἀφετέον τὸ μάθημα, ἀλλʼ οἱ ἄριστοι τὰς φύσεις παιδευτέοι ἐν αὐτῷ.
σύμφημι, ἦ δʼ ὅς.
τοῦτο μὲν τοίνυν, εἶπον, ἓν ἡμῖν κείσθω· δεύτερον δὲ τὸ ἐχόμενον τούτου σκεψώμεθα ἆρά τι προσήκει ἡμῖν.
τὸ ποῖον; ἢ γεωμετρίαν, ἔφη, λέγεις;
αὐτὸ τοῦτο, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ. 526d
“For all these reasons, then, we mustn’t give up this study. Those with the best natures must be educated in it.”
“I agree,” he said.
“Then let that be one thing settled,” I said. “Second, let’s consider whether the study that comes next is of any use to us.”
“What study? Do you mean geometry?” he said.
“Exactly that,” I said. 526d
ὅσον μέν, ἔφη, πρὸς τὰ πολεμικὰ αὐτοῦ τείνει, δῆλον ὅτι προσήκει· πρὸς γὰρ τὰς στρατοπεδεύσεις καὶ καταλήψεις χωρίων καὶ συναγωγὰς καὶ ἐκτάσεις στρατιᾶς καὶ ὅσα δὴ ἄλλα σχηματίζουσι τὰ στρατόπεδα ἐν αὐταῖς τε ταῖς μάχαις καὶ πορείαις διαφέροι ἂν αὐτὸς αὑτοῦ γεωμετρικός τε καὶ μὴ ὤν.
“As much of it as bears on warfare,” he said, “is obviously of use. For pitching camp, seizing positions, concentrating and deploying an army, and all the other formations armies take in battle itself and on the march, the same man would do far better as a geometer than otherwise.”
ἀλλʼ οὖν δή, εἶπον, πρὸς μὲν τὰ τοιαῦτα καὶ βραχύ τι ἂν ἐξαρκοῖ γεωμετρίας τε καὶ λογισμῶν μόριον· τὸ δὲ πολὺ αὐτῆς καὶ πορρωτέρω προϊὸν σκοπεῖσθαι δεῖ εἴ τι πρὸς ἐκεῖνο 526e τείνει, πρὸς τὸ ποιεῖν κατιδεῖν ῥᾷον τὴν τοῦ ἀγαθοῦ ἰδέαν. τείνει δέ, φαμέν, πάντα αὐτόσε, ὅσα ἀναγκάζει ψυχὴν εἰς ἐκεῖνον τὸν τόπον μεταστρέφεσθαι ἐν ᾧ ἐστι τὸ εὐδαιμονέστατον τοῦ ὄντος, ὃ δεῖ αὐτὴν παντὶ τρόπῳ ἰδεῖν.
ὀρθῶς, ἔφη, λέγεις.
οὐκοῦν εἰ μὲν οὐσίαν ἀναγκάζει θεάσασθαι, προσήκει, εἰ δὲ γένεσιν, οὐ προσήκει.
φαμέν γε δή.
“But for things like that,” I said, “even a small portion of geometry and calculation would be enough. What we need to consider is whether the larger and more advanced part of it tends toward that goal: 526e making it easier to see the form of the good. And everything tends that way, we say, that compels the soul to turn toward the region where the most blessed part of what is is found, which the soul must by all means see.”
“You’re right,” he said.
“Then if it compels us to contemplate being, it’s of use; if becoming, it isn’t.”
“That’s what we say.”
οὐ τοίνυν τοῦτό γε, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, ἀμφισβητήσουσιν ἡμῖν ὅσοι καὶ σμικρὰ γεωμετρίας ἔμπειροι, ὅτι αὕτη ἡ ἐπιστήμη πᾶν τοὐναντίον ἔχει τοῖς ἐν αὐτῇ λόγοις λεγομένοις ὑπὸ τῶν μεταχειριζομένων.
πῶς; ἔφη.
λέγουσι μέν που μάλα γελοίως τε καὶ ἀναγκαίως· ὡς γὰρ πράττοντές τε καὶ πράξεως ἕνεκα πάντας τοὺς λόγους ποιούμενοι λέγουσιν τετραγωνίζειν τε καὶ παρατείνειν καὶ προστιθέναι καὶ πάντα οὕτω φθεγγόμενοι, τὸ δʼ ἔστι που 527b πᾶν τὸ μάθημα γνώσεως ἕνεκα ἐπιτηδευόμενον.
παντάπασι μὲν οὖν, ἔφη.
οὐκοῦν τοῦτο ἔτι διομολογητέον;
τὸ ποῖον;
“Well, no one with even a little experience of geometry,” I said, “will dispute this with us: that this science is the complete opposite of the way its practitioners talk about it.”
“How so?” he said.
“They talk, I think, in a very ridiculous way, though they can’t help it. They speak as if they were doing something, and make all their statements for the sake of action: ‘squaring,’ ‘applying,’ ‘adding,’ and so on. But in fact the whole 527b subject is pursued for the sake of knowledge.”
“Absolutely,” he said.
“Mustn’t we agree to something further?”
“What?”
ὡς τοῦ ἀεὶ ὄντος γνώσεως, ἀλλὰ οὐ τοῦ ποτέ τι γιγνομένου καὶ ἀπολλυμένου.
εὐομολόγητον, ἔφη· τοῦ γὰρ ἀεὶ ὄντος ἡ γεωμετρικὴ γνῶσίς ἐστιν.
ὁλκὸν ἄρα, ὦ γενναῖε, ψυχῆς πρὸς ἀλήθειαν εἴη ἂν καὶ ἀπεργαστικὸν φιλοσόφου διανοίας πρὸς τὸ ἄνω σχεῖν ἃ νῦν κάτω οὐ δέον ἔχομεν.
ὡς οἷόν τε μάλιστα, ἔφη. 527c
ὡς οἷόν τʼ ἄρα, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, μάλιστα προστακτέον ὅπως οἱ ἐν τῇ καλλιπόλει σοι μηδενὶ τρόπῳ γεωμετρίας ἀφέξονται. καὶ γὰρ τὰ πάρεργα αὐτοῦ οὐ σμικρά.
ποῖα; ἦ δʼ ὅς.
“That it’s knowledge of what always is, not of something that at some time comes to be and passes away.”
“That’s easily agreed,” he said. “Geometry is knowledge of what always is.”
“Then, my noble friend, it would draw the soul toward truth, and produce philosophical thought, so that we turn upward what we now wrongly turn downward.”
“As much as anything can,” he said. 527c
“Then as much as anything can,” I said, “we must order that the people in your beautiful city by no means neglect geometry. Its by-products aren’t trivial either.”
“What are they?” he said.
ἅ τε δὴ σὺ εἶπες, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, τὰ περὶ τὸν πόλεμον, καὶ δὴ καὶ πρὸς πάσας μαθήσεις, ὥστε κάλλιον ἀποδέχεσθαι, ἴσμεν που ὅτι τῷ ὅλῳ καὶ παντὶ διοίσει ἡμμένος τε γεωμετρίας καὶ μή.
τῷ παντὶ μέντοι νὴ Δίʼ, ἔφη.
δεύτερον δὴ τοῦτο τιθῶμεν μάθημα τοῖς νέοις;
τιθῶμεν, ἔφη. 527d
τί δέ; τρίτον θῶμεν ἀστρονομίαν; ἢ οὐ δοκεῖ;
ἐμοὶ γοῦν, ἔφη· τὸ γὰρ περὶ ὥρας εὐαισθητοτέρως ἔχειν καὶ μηνῶν καὶ ἐνιαυτῶν οὐ μόνον γεωργίᾳ οὐδὲ ναυτιλίᾳ προσήκει, ἀλλὰ καὶ στρατηγίᾳ οὐχ ἧττον.
“The ones you mentioned,” I said, “concerning war. And as for taking in all other studies better, we know, surely, that someone who has grasped geometry will be completely different from someone who hasn’t.”
“Completely, by Zeus,” he said.
“Shall we set this down as the second study for the young, then?”
“Let’s,” he said. 527d
“Well then, shall we set down astronomy third? Or don’t you think so?”
“I do,” he said. “Being more perceptive about the seasons, months and years is fitting not only for farming and navigation, but just as much for generalship.”
ἡδὺς εἶ, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, ὅτι ἔοικας δεδιότι τοὺς πολλούς, μὴ δοκῇς ἄχρηστα μαθήματα προστάττειν. τὸ δʼ ἔστιν οὐ πάνυ φαῦλον ἀλλὰ χαλεπὸν πιστεῦσαι ὅτι ἐν τούτοις τοῖς μαθήμασιν ἑκάστου ὄργανόν τι ψυχῆς ἐκκαθαίρεταί τε καὶ 527e ἀναζωπυρεῖται ἀπολλύμενον καὶ τυφλούμενον ὑπὸ τῶν ἄλλων ἐπιτηδευμάτων, κρεῖττον ὂν σωθῆναι μυρίων ὀμμάτων· μόνῳ γὰρ αὐτῷ ἀλήθεια ὁρᾶται. οἷς μὲν οὖν ταῦτα συνδοκεῖ ἀμηχάνως ὡς εὖ δόξεις λέγειν, ὅσοι δὲ τούτου μηδαμῇ ᾐσθημένοι εἰσὶν εἰκότως ἡγήσονταί σε λέγειν οὐδέν· ἄλλην γὰρ ἀπʼ αὐτῶν οὐχ ὁρῶσιν ἀξίαν λόγου ὠφελίαν.
“You amuse me,” I said. “You seem to be afraid the majority will think you’re prescribing useless studies. But it’s no trivial matter—in fact it’s hard—to believe that in these studies an instrument in each person’s soul is purified and 527e rekindled, after being destroyed and blinded by other pursuits; and this instrument is more worth saving than ten thousand eyes, since truth is seen by it alone. Those who share this view will think you’re speaking remarkably well. But those who’ve never had any inkling of it will naturally think you’re talking nonsense, since they see no other benefit from these studies worth mentioning.
σκόπει 528a οὖν αὐτόθεν πρὸς ποτέρους διαλέγῃ· ἢ οὐδὲ πρὸς ἑτέρους, ἀλλὰ σαυτοῦ ἕνεκα τὸ μέγιστον ποιῇ τοὺς λόγους, φθονοῖς μὴν οὐδʼ ἂν ἄλλῳ, εἴ τίς τι δύναιτο ἀπʼ αὐτῶν ὄνασθαι.
οὕτως, ἔφη, αἱροῦμαι, ἐμαυτοῦ ἕνεκα τὸ πλεῖστον λέγειν τε καὶ ἐρωτᾶν καὶ ἀποκρίνεσθαι.
ἄναγε τοίνυν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, εἰς τοὐπίσω· νυνδὴ γὰρ οὐκ ὀρθῶς τὸ ἑξῆς ἐλάβομεν τῇ γεωμετρίᾳ.
πῶς λαβόντες; ἔφη.
“So decide right now 528a which group you’re talking to. Or perhaps it’s neither, and you’re making your arguments mainly for your own sake, though you wouldn’t begrudge anyone else whatever benefit he might get from them.”
“That’s my choice,” he said: “to speak, ask and answer mainly for my own sake.”
“Then back up a step,” I said. “Just now we didn’t take the subject that comes after geometry correctly.”
“How did we take it?” he said.
μετὰ ἐπίπεδον, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, ἐν περιφορᾷ ὂν ἤδη στερεὸν 528b λαβόντες, πρὶν αὐτὸ καθʼ αὑτὸ λαβεῖν· ὀρθῶς δὲ ἔχει ἑξῆς μετὰ δευτέραν αὔξην τρίτην λαμβάνειν. ἔστι δέ που τοῦτο περὶ τὴν τῶν κύβων αὔξην καὶ τὸ βάθους μετέχον.
ἔστι γάρ, ἔφη· ἀλλὰ ταῦτά γε, ὦ Σώκρατες, δοκεῖ οὔπω ηὑρῆσθαι.
“After plane surfaces,” I said, “we went straight to solids in rotation, taking up the solid 528b before we’d studied it by itself. But the right thing is to take the third dimension straight after the second. And that, I think, is the dimension of cubes and whatever has depth.”
“Yes, it is,” he said. “But these things, Socrates, don’t seem to have been discovered yet.”
διττὰ γάρ, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, τὰ αἴτια· ὅτι τε οὐδεμία πόλις ἐντίμως αὐτὰ ἔχει, ἀσθενῶς ζητεῖται χαλεπὰ ὄντα, ἐπιστάτου τε δέονται οἱ ζητοῦντες, ἄνευ οὗ οὐκ ἂν εὕροιεν, ὃν πρῶτον μὲν γενέσθαι χαλεπόν, ἔπειτα καὶ γενομένου, ὡς νῦν ἔχει, 528c οὐκ ἂν πείθοιντο οἱ περὶ ταῦτα ζητητικοὶ μεγαλοφρονούμενοι. εἰ δὲ πόλις ὅλη συνεπιστατοῖ ἐντίμως ἄγουσα αὐτά, οὗτοί τε ἂν πείθοιντο καὶ συνεχῶς τε ἂν καὶ ἐντόνως ζητούμενα ἐκφανῆ γένοιτο ὅπῃ ἔχει· ἐπεὶ καὶ νῦν ὑπὸ τῶν πολλῶν ἀτιμαζόμενα καὶ κολουόμενα, ὑπὸ δὲ τῶν ζητούντων λόγον οὐκ ἐχόντων καθʼ ὅτι χρήσιμα, ὅμως πρὸς ἅπαντα ταῦτα βίᾳ ὑπὸ χάριτος αὐξάνεται, καὶ οὐδὲν θαυμαστὸν αὐτὰ φανῆναι. 528d
“There are two reasons for that,” I said. “First, since no city holds these things in honor, they’re researched feebly, being difficult. Second, the researchers need a director, without whom they won’t make discoveries. It’s hard for such a director to appear in the first place; and even if one did, as things stand 528c the researchers in this field are too proud to obey him. But if a whole city joined in directing them and held these things in honor, the researchers would obey, and with continuous and vigorous research the truth about them would come to light. Even now, slighted and stunted as they are by the many, and by researchers who can’t say what they’re useful for, they grow in spite of all this, by the force of their charm; so it wouldn’t be surprising if they came to light.” 528d
καὶ μὲν δή, ἔφη, τό γε ἐπίχαρι καὶ διαφερόντως ἔχει. ἀλλά μοι σαφέστερον εἰπὲ ἃ νυνδὴ ἔλεγες. τὴν μὲν γάρ που τοῦ ἐπιπέδου πραγματείαν γεωμετρίαν ἐτίθεις.
ναί, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ.
εἶτά γʼ, ἔφη, τὸ μὲν πρῶτον ἀστρονομίαν μετὰ ταύτην, ὕστερον δʼ ἀνεχώρησας.
σπεύδων γάρ, ἔφην, ταχὺ πάντα διεξελθεῖν μᾶλλον βραδύνω· ἑξῆς γὰρ οὖσαν τὴν βάθους αὔξης μέθοδον, ὅτι τῇ ζητήσει γελοίως ἔχει, ὑπερβὰς αὐτὴν μετὰ γεωμετρίαν 528e ἀστρονομίαν ἔλεγον, φορὰν οὖσαν βάθους.
ὀρθῶς, ἔφη, λέγεις.
“Yes,” he said, “they certainly have exceptional charm. But explain more clearly what you were saying just now. You were counting the study of plane surfaces as geometry.”
“Yes,” I said.
“And then,” he said, “at first you put astronomy after it, but later you went back.”
“Yes,” I said, “in my hurry to go through everything quickly, I’m getting there more slowly. The investigation of the dimension of depth came next, but because research into it is in a ridiculous state, I skipped it and after geometry 528e spoke of astronomy, which is the motion of what has depth.”
“That’s right,” he said.
τέταρτον τοίνυν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, τιθῶμεν μάθημα ἀστρονομίαν, ὡς ὑπαρχούσης τῆς νῦν παραλειπομένης, ἐὰν αὐτὴν πόλις μετίῃ.
εἰκός, ἦ δʼ ὅς. καὶ ὅ γε νυνδή μοι, ὦ Σώκρατες, ἐπέπληξας περὶ ἀστρονομίας ὡς φορτικῶς ἐπαινοῦντι, νῦν ᾗ σὺ μετέρχῃ 529a ἐπαινῶ· παντὶ γάρ μοι δοκεῖ δῆλον ὅτι αὕτη γε ἀναγκάζει ψυχὴν εἰς τὸ ἄνω ὁρᾶν καὶ ἀπὸ τῶν ἐνθένδε ἐκεῖσε ἄγει.
ἴσως, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, παντὶ δῆλον πλὴν ἐμοί· ἐμοὶ γὰρ οὐ δοκεῖ οὕτως.
ἀλλὰ πῶς; ἔφη.
“Then let’s set astronomy down as the fourth study,” I said, “on the assumption that the one we’re now leaving out will be available if a city pursues it.”
“That’s reasonable,” he said. “And Socrates, since you scolded me just now for praising astronomy in a vulgar way, I’ll now praise it on the lines you’re pursuing. 529a I think it’s clear to everyone that this study compels the soul to look upward, and leads it from things here to things there.”
“Perhaps it’s clear to everyone but me,” I said. “I don’t think so.”
“What do you think, then?” he said.
ὡς μὲν νῦν αὐτὴν μεταχειρίζονται οἱ εἰς φιλοσοφίαν ἀνάγοντες, πάνυ ποιεῖν κάτω βλέπειν.
πῶς, ἔφη, λέγεις;
“The way it’s handled now by those who lead people up into philosophy, it makes the soul look very much downward.”
“What do you mean?” he said.
οὐκ ἀγεννῶς μοι δοκεῖς, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, τὴν περὶ τὰ ἄνω μάθησιν λαμβάνειν παρὰ σαυτῷ ἥ ἐστι· κινδυνεύεις γὰρ 529b καὶ εἴ τις ἐν ὀροφῇ ποικίλματα θεώμενος ἀνακύπτων καταμανθάνοι τι, ἡγεῖσθαι ἂν αὐτὸν νοήσει ἀλλʼ οὐκ ὄμμασι θεωρεῖν. ἴσως οὖν καλῶς ἡγῇ, ἐγὼ δʼ εὐηθικῶς. ἐγὼ γὰρ αὖ οὐ δύναμαι ἄλλο τι νομίσαι ἄνω ποιοῦν ψυχὴν βλέπειν μάθημα ἢ ἐκεῖνο ὃ ἂν περὶ τὸ ὄν τε ᾖ καὶ τὸ ἀόρατον, ἐάν τέ τις ἄνω κεχηνὼς ἢ κάτω συμμεμυκὼς τῶν αἰσθητῶν τι ἐπιχειρῇ μανθάνειν, οὔτε μαθεῖν ἄν ποτέ φημι αὐτόν—ἐπιστήμην 529c γὰρ οὐδὲν ἔχειν τῶν τοιούτων—οὔτε ἄνω ἀλλὰ κάτω αὐτοῦ βλέπειν τὴν ψυχήν, κἂν ἐξ ὑπτίας νέων ἐν γῇ ἢ ἐν θαλάττῃ μανθάνῃ.
“It seems to me,” I said, “that you have a rather lordly idea of what the study of things ‘above’ is. You look likely to think that 529b if someone tipped his head back and learned something by gazing at decorations on a ceiling, he was contemplating them with his understanding and not with his eyes. Maybe you’re right to think so, and I’m being simple-minded. But I, for my part, can’t believe that any study makes the soul look upward except the one concerned with what is and is invisible. If someone tries to learn about any perceptible thing, whether gaping upward or squinting down, I say he will never learn it—for there is no knowledge 529c of such things—and that his soul is looking not up but down, even if he does his studying floating on his back, on land or at sea.”
δίκην, ἔφη, ἔχω· ὀρθῶς γάρ μοι ἐπέπληξας. ἀλλὰ πῶς δὴ ἔλεγες δεῖν ἀστρονομίαν μανθάνειν παρὰ ἃ νῦν μανθάνουσιν, εἰ μέλλοιεν ὠφελίμως πρὸς ἃ λέγομεν μαθήσεσθαι;
“I’ve got what I deserve,” he said. “You were right to rebuke me. But what did you mean when you said astronomy should be studied differently from the way it’s studied now, if it’s to be learned in a way that’s useful for our purposes?”
ὧδε, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ. ταῦτα μὲν τὰ ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ ποικίλματα, ἐπείπερ ἐν ὁρατῷ πεποίκιλται, κάλλιστα μὲν ἡγεῖσθαι καὶ 529d ἀκριβέστατα τῶν τοιούτων ἔχειν, τῶν δὲ ἀληθινῶν πολὺ ἐνδεῖν, ἃς τὸ ὂν τάχος καὶ ἡ οὖσα βραδυτὴς ἐν τῷ ἀληθινῷ ἀριθμῷ καὶ πᾶσι τοῖς ἀληθέσι σχήμασι φοράς τε πρὸς ἄλληλα φέρεται καὶ τὰ ἐνόντα φέρει, ἃ δὴ λόγῳ μὲν καὶ διανοίᾳ ληπτά, ὄψει δʼ οὔ· ἢ σὺ οἴει;
οὐδαμῶς γε, ἔφη.
“This,” I said. “These decorations in the sky, since they are embroidered on something visible, should be regarded as the most beautiful and 529d most precise of such things, but as falling far short of the true ones—the motions with which real speed and real slowness, in true number and in all the true figures, move relative to each other and carry along what is in them. These can be grasped by reason and thought, but not by sight. Or do you think otherwise?”
“Not at all,” he said.
οὐκοῦν, εἶπον, τῇ περὶ τὸν οὐρανὸν ποικιλίᾳ παραδείγμασι χρηστέον τῆς πρὸς ἐκεῖνα μαθήσεως ἕνεκα, ὁμοίως ὥσπερ ἂν 529e εἴ τις ἐντύχοι ὑπὸ Δαιδάλου ἤ τινος ἄλλου δημιουργοῦ ἢ γραφέως διαφερόντως γεγραμμένοις καὶ ἐκπεπονημένοις διαγράμμασιν.
ἡγήσαιτο γὰρ ἄν πού τις ἔμπειρος γεωμετρίας, ἰδὼν τὰ τοιαῦτα, κάλλιστα μὲν ἔχειν ἀπεργασίᾳ, γελοῖον μὴν ἐπισκοπεῖν αὐτὰ σπουδῇ ὡς τὴν ἀλήθειαν ἐν αὐτοῖς ληψόμενον 530a ἴσων ἢ διπλασίων ἢ ἄλλης τινὸς συμμετρίας.
τί δʼ οὐ μέλλει γελοῖον εἶναι; ἔφη.
“Then we should use the decoration in the sky as models for the sake of learning about those other things,” I said, “just as 529e we would if we came across diagrams drawn and worked out with exceptional skill by Daedalus or some other craftsman or painter.
“Anyone experienced in geometry who saw such things would presumably think them superbly made, but would think it ridiculous to study them seriously in the expectation of finding in them the truth about 530a equals or doubles or any other ratio.”
“How could it not be ridiculous?” he said.
τῷ ὄντι δὴ ἀστρονομικόν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, ὄντα οὐκ οἴει ταὐτὸν πείσεσθαι εἰς τὰς τῶν ἄστρων φορὰς ἀποβλέποντα; νομιεῖν μὲν ὡς οἷόν τε κάλλιστα τὰ τοιαῦτα ἔργα συστήσασθαι, οὕτω συνεστάναι τῷ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ δημιουργῷ αὐτόν τε καὶ τὰ ἐν αὐτῷ· τὴν δὲ νυκτὸς πρὸς ἡμέραν συμμετρίαν καὶ τούτων πρὸς μῆνα καὶ μηνὸς πρὸς ἐνιαυτὸν καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ἄστρων 530b πρός τε ταῦτα καὶ πρὸς ἄλληλα, οὐκ ἄτοπον, οἴει, ἡγήσεται τὸν νομίζοντα γίγνεσθαί τε ταῦτα ἀεὶ ὡσαύτως καὶ οὐδαμῇ οὐδὲν παραλλάττειν, σῶμά τε ἔχοντα καὶ ὁρώμενα, καὶ ζητεῖν παντὶ τρόπῳ τὴν ἀλήθειαν αὐτῶν λαβεῖν;
“Well, don’t you think someone who is really an astronomer will feel the same way when he looks at the motions of the stars?” I said. “He’ll believe that the craftsman of the heavens put together the heavens themselves and what is in them as beautifully as such works can be put together. But as for the ratio of night to day, and of these to the month, and of the month to the year, and of the other stars 530b to these and to one another—don’t you think he’ll consider it strange to believe that these things always happen in the same way and never deviate in any respect, even though they have bodies and are visible, and to seek by every means to grasp the truth about them?”
ἐμοὶ γοῦν δοκεῖ, ἔφη, σοῦ νῦν ἀκούοντι.
προβλήμασιν ἄρα, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, χρώμενοι ὥσπερ γεωμετρίαν οὕτω καὶ ἀστρονομίαν μέτιμεν, τὰ δʼ ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ ἐάσομεν, εἰ μέλλομεν ὄντως ἀστρονομίας μεταλαμβάνοντες χρήσιμον 530c τὸ φύσει φρόνιμον ἐν τῇ ψυχῇ ἐξ ἀχρήστου ποιήσειν.
ἦ πολλαπλάσιον, ἔφη, τὸ ἔργον ἢ ὡς νῦν ἀστρονομεῖται προστάττεις.
οἶμαι δέ γε, εἶπον, καὶ τἆλλα κατὰ τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον προστάξειν ἡμᾶς, ἐάν τι ἡμῶν ὡς νομοθετῶν ὄφελος ᾖ. ἀλλὰ γάρ τι ἔχεις ὑπομνῆσαι τῶν προσηκόντων μαθημάτων;
οὐκ ἔχω, ἔφη, νῦν γʼ οὑτωσί.
“I certainly think so,” he said, “now that I hear it from you.”
“Then we’ll pursue astronomy as we do geometry,” I said, “by means of problems, and leave the things in the sky alone, if we’re really going to take part in astronomy and make 530c the naturally wise part of the soul useful instead of useless.”
“You’re prescribing a task many times greater than the way astronomy is done now,” he said.
“Yes,” I said, “and I think we’ll prescribe everything else in the same way too, if we’re to be of any use as lawgivers. But can you suggest any other suitable subject?”
“Not right now, just like that,” he said.
οὐ μὴν ἕν, ἀλλὰ πλείω, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, εἴδη παρέχεται ἡ φορά, 530d ὡς ἐγᾦμαι. τὰ μὲν οὖν πάντα ἴσως ὅστις σοφὸς ἕξει εἰπεῖν· ἃ δὲ καὶ ἡμῖν προφανῆ, δύο.
ποῖα δή;
πρὸς τούτῳ, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, ἀντίστροφον αὐτοῦ.
τὸ ποῖον;
κινδυνεύει, ἔφην, ὡς πρὸς ἀστρονομίαν ὄμματα πέπηγεν, ὣς πρὸς ἐναρμόνιον φορὰν ὦτα παγῆναι, καὶ αὗται ἀλλήλων ἀδελφαί τινες αἱ ἐπιστῆμαι εἶναι, ὡς οἵ τε Πυθαγόρειοί φασι καὶ ἡμεῖς, ὦ Γλαύκων, συγχωροῦμεν. ἢ πῶς ποιοῦμεν;
οὕτως, ἔφη. 530e
“Well, motion presents not one kind but several,” I said, 530d “as I think. Some wise person will perhaps be able to name them all; but there are two that are obvious even to us.”
“What are they?”
“Besides the one we’ve discussed,” I said, “its counterpart.”
“What’s that?”
“It looks as if, just as the eyes are fixed on astronomy,” I said, “so the ears are fixed on harmonic motion, and these two sciences are sisters of a sort, as the Pythagoreans say and as we agree, Glaucon. Or what do we do?”
“We agree,” he said. 530e
οὐκοῦν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, ἐπειδὴ πολὺ τὸ ἔργον, ἐκείνων πευσόμεθα πῶς λέγουσι περὶ αὐτῶν καὶ εἴ τι ἄλλο πρὸς τούτοις· ἡμεῖς δὲ παρὰ πάντα ταῦτα φυλάξομεν τὸ ἡμέτερον.
ποῖον;
μή ποτʼ αὐτῶν τι ἀτελὲς ἐπιχειρῶσιν ἡμῖν μανθάνειν οὓς θρέψομεν, καὶ οὐκ ἐξῆκον ἐκεῖσε ἀεί, οἷ πάντα δεῖ ἀφήκειν, οἷον ἄρτι περὶ τῆς ἀστρονομίας ἐλέγομεν.
ἢ οὐκ οἶσθʼ ὅτι 531a καὶ περὶ ἁρμονίας ἕτερον τοιοῦτον ποιοῦσι; τὰς γὰρ ἀκουομένας αὖ συμφωνίας καὶ φθόγγους ἀλλήλοις ἀναμετροῦντες ἀνήνυτα, ὥσπερ οἱ ἀστρονόμοι, πονοῦσιν.
“Then since the task is a big one,” I said, “we’ll find out from them what they say about these things and whatever else there is besides. But through all of it we’ll hold on to our own principle.”
“What’s that?”
“That those we are going to raise should never attempt to learn any part of these subjects that is incomplete and doesn’t always arrive at the point where everything ought to end up, as we were just saying about astronomy.
“Or don’t you know that 531a they do the same kind of thing with harmony too? They measure audible concords and sounds against one another, and so, like the astronomers, they labor to no end.”
νὴ τοὺς θεούς, ἔφη, καὶ γελοίως γε, πυκνώματʼ ἄττα ὀνομάζοντες καὶ παραβάλλοντες τὰ ὦτα, οἷον ἐκ γειτόνων φωνὴν θηρευόμενοι, οἱ μέν φασιν ἔτι κατακούειν ἐν μέσῳ τινὰ ἠχὴν καὶ σμικρότατον εἶναι τοῦτο διάστημα, ᾧ μετρητέον, οἱ δὲ ἀμφισβητοῦντες ὡς ὅμοιον ἤδη φθεγγομένων, ἀμφότεροι 531b ὦτα τοῦ νοῦ προστησάμενοι.
“Yes, by the gods,” he said, “and ridiculously too. They talk about certain ‘densities’ and put their ears to the strings as if trying to catch a voice from next door. Some say they can still hear a sound in between, and that this is the smallest interval, the one that should be the unit of measure; others argue that the strings are now sounding the same note. Both 531b put their ears ahead of their understanding.”
σὺ μέν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, τοὺς χρηστοὺς λέγεις τοὺς ταῖς χορδαῖς πράγματα παρέχοντας καὶ βασανίζοντας, ἐπὶ τῶν κολλόπων στρεβλοῦντας· ἵνα δὲ μὴ μακροτέρα ἡ εἰκὼν γίγνηται πλήκτρῳ τε πληγῶν γιγνομένων καὶ κατηγορίας πέρι καὶ ἐξαρνήσεως καὶ ἀλαζονείας χορδῶν, παύομαι τῆς εἰκόνος καὶ οὔ φημι τούτους λέγειν, ἀλλʼ ἐκείνους οὓς ἔφαμεν νυνδὴ περὶ ἁρμονίας ἐρήσεσθαι. ταὐτὸν γὰρ ποιοῦσι τοῖς ἐν τῇ 531c ἀστρονομίᾳ· τοὺς γὰρ ἐν ταύταις ταῖς συμφωνίαις ταῖς ἀκουομέναις ἀριθμοὺς ζητοῦσιν, ἀλλʼ οὐκ εἰς προβλήματα ἀνίασιν, ἐπισκοπεῖν τίνες σύμφωνοι ἀριθμοὶ καὶ τίνες οὔ, καὶ διὰ τί ἑκάτεροι.
“You mean those excellent people who harass the strings and torture them, racking them on the pegs,” I said. “But so that the image doesn’t get too long—with blows from the plectrum, and accusations against the strings, and denials and brazenness on their part—I’ll drop the image. I don’t mean these people but the ones we said just now we’d ask about harmony. They do the same thing as the 531c astronomers: they look for the numbers in these audible concords, but they don’t go up to problems, to investigate which numbers are concordant and which are not, and why in each case.”
δαιμόνιον γάρ, ἔφη, πρᾶγμα λέγεις.
χρήσιμον μὲν οὖν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, πρὸς τὴν τοῦ καλοῦ τε καὶ ἀγαθοῦ ζήτησιν, ἄλλως δὲ μεταδιωκόμενον ἄχρηστον.
εἰκός γʼ, ἔφη.
οἶμαι δέ γε, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, καὶ ἡ τούτων πάντων ὧν διεληλύθαμεν 531d μέθοδος ἐὰν μὲν ἐπὶ τὴν ἀλλήλων κοινωνίαν ἀφίκηται καὶ συγγένειαν, καὶ συλλογισθῇ ταῦτα ᾗ ἐστὶν ἀλλήλοις οἰκεῖα, φέρειν τι αὐτῶν εἰς ἃ βουλόμεθα τὴν πραγματείαν καὶ οὐκ ἀνόνητα πονεῖσθαι, εἰ δὲ μή, ἀνόνητα.
καὶ ἐγώ, ἔφη, οὕτω μαντεύομαι. ἀλλὰ πάμπολυ ἔργον λέγεις, ὦ Σώκρατες.
“That’s a superhuman task you’re describing,” he said.
“A useful one, rather,” I said, “for the search for the beautiful and the good, but useless if pursued in any other way.”
“Likely enough,” he said.
“And I think,” I said, “that if the study of all these things we’ve gone through 531d reaches their community and kinship with one another, and works out how they are related, then pursuing them contributes something to what we want, and the labor isn’t wasted; but otherwise it is.”
“I suspect so too,” he said. “But it’s an enormous task you’re talking about, Socrates.”
Dialectic
Socrates presents dialectic as the crowning study, which reaches the first principle of all.
τοῦ προοιμίου, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, ἢ τίνος λέγεις; ἢ οὐκ ἴσμεν ὅτι πάντα ταῦτα προοίμιά ἐστιν αὐτοῦ τοῦ νόμου ὃν δεῖ μαθεῖν; οὐ γάρ που δοκοῦσί γέ σοι οἱ ταῦτα δεινοὶ διαλεκτικοὶ 531e εἶναι.
οὐ μὰ τὸν Δίʼ, ἔφη, εἰ μὴ μάλα γέ τινες ὀλίγοι ὧν ἐγὼ ἐντετύχηκα.
ἀλλὰ δή, εἶπον, μὴ δυνατοὶ οἵτινες δοῦναί τε καὶ ἀποδέξασθαι λόγον εἴσεσθαί ποτέ τι ὧν φαμεν δεῖν εἰδέναι;
οὐδʼ αὖ, ἔφη, τοῦτό γε.
“The prelude, you mean,” I said, “or what? Don’t we know that all these are only preludes to the song itself that has to be learned? Surely you don’t think people who are clever at these things are dialecticians.” 531e
“No, by Zeus,” he said, “except for a very few of those I’ve met.”
“But will people who can’t give and receive an account,” I said, “ever know any of the things we say they must know?”
“No,” he said, “not that either.”
οὐκοῦν, εἶπον, ὦ Γλαύκων, οὗτος ἤδη αὐτός ἐστιν ὁ νόμος ὃν τὸ διαλέγεσθαι περαίνει; ὃν καὶ ὄντα νοητὸν μιμοῖτʼ ἂν ἡ τῆς ὄψεως δύναμις, ἣν ἐλέγομεν πρὸς αὐτὰ ἤδη τὰ ζῷα ἐπιχειρεῖν ἀποβλέπειν καὶ πρὸς αὐτὰ τὰ ἄστρα τε καὶ τελευταῖον δὴ πρὸς αὐτὸν τὸν ἥλιον. οὕτω καὶ ὅταν τις τῷ διαλέγεσθαι ἐπιχειρῇ ἄνευ πασῶν τῶν αἰσθήσεων διὰ τοῦ λόγου ἐπʼ αὐτὸ ὃ ἔστιν ἕκαστον ὁρμᾶν, καὶ μὴ ἀποστῇ πρὶν 532b ἂν αὐτὸ ὃ ἔστιν ἀγαθὸν αὐτῇ νοήσει λάβῃ, ἐπʼ αὐτῷ γίγνεται τῷ τοῦ νοητοῦ τέλει, ὥσπερ ἐκεῖνος τότε ἐπὶ τῷ τοῦ ὁρατοῦ.
“Then isn’t this, Glaucon,” I said, “finally the song itself that dialectic performs? Though it is intelligible, the power of sight would imitate it—the power that, we said, tries to look at the animals themselves, then at the stars themselves, and finally at the sun itself. In the same way, when someone tries through dialectic, without any of the senses, to press on by means of reason to what each thing itself is, and doesn’t give up until 532b he grasps what the good itself is by understanding itself, he arrives at the very end of the intelligible, just as that other one then arrived at the end of the visible.”
παντάπασι μὲν οὖν, ἔφη.
τί οὖν; οὐ διαλεκτικὴν ταύτην τὴν πορείαν καλεῖς;
τί μήν;
“Absolutely,” he said.
“Well then, don’t you call this journey dialectic?”
“Of course.”
ἡ δέ γε, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, λύσις τε ἀπὸ τῶν δεσμῶν καὶ μεταστροφὴ ἀπὸ τῶν σκιῶν ἐπὶ τὰ εἴδωλα καὶ τὸ φῶς καὶ ἐκ τοῦ καταγείου εἰς τὸν ἥλιον ἐπάνοδος, καὶ ἐκεῖ πρὸς μὲν τὰ ζῷά τε καὶ φυτὰ καὶ τὸ τοῦ ἡλίου φῶς ἔτι ἀδυναμία 532c βλέπειν, πρὸς δὲ τὰ ἐν ὕδασι φαντάσματα θεῖα καὶ σκιὰς τῶν ὄντων, ἀλλʼ οὐκ εἰδώλων σκιὰς διʼ ἑτέρου τοιούτου φωτὸς ὡς πρὸς ἥλιον κρίνειν ἀποσκιαζομένας—πᾶσα αὕτη ἡ πραγματεία τῶν τεχνῶν ἃς διήλθομεν ταύτην ἔχει τὴν δύναμιν καὶ ἐπαναγωγὴν τοῦ βελτίστου ἐν ψυχῇ πρὸς τὴν τοῦ ἀρίστου ἐν τοῖς οὖσι θέαν, ὥσπερ τότε τοῦ σαφεστάτου ἐν σώματι πρὸς τὴν τοῦ φανοτάτου ἐν τῷ σωματοειδεῖ τε καὶ 532d ὁρατῷ τόπῳ.
“And the release from the bonds,” I said, “and the turning from the shadows to the images and the light, and the ascent from the underground cave to the sun; and there, the continued inability to look at the animals and plants and the light of the sun, 532c but the ability to look at divine reflections in water and shadows of the things that are—not shadows of images cast by another light of the same kind, which is itself a shadow compared with the sun—all this practice of the arts we’ve gone through has this power: it leads the best part of the soul up to the sight of the best among the things that are, just as then the clearest part of the body was led to the sight of the brightest thing in the bodily and 532d visible realm.”
ἐγὼ μέν, ἔφη, ἀποδέχομαι οὕτω. καίτοι παντάπασί γέ μοι δοκεῖ χαλεπὰ μὲν ἀποδέχεσθαι εἶναι, ἄλλον δʼ αὖ τρόπον χαλεπὰ μὴ ἀποδέχεσθαι. ὅμως δέ—οὐ γὰρ ἐν τῷ νῦν παρόντι μόνον ἀκουστέα, ἀλλὰ καὶ αὖθις πολλάκις ἐπανιτέον —ταῦτα θέντες ἔχειν ὡς νῦν λέγεται, ἐπʼ αὐτὸν δὴ τὸν νόμον ἴωμεν, καὶ διέλθωμεν οὕτως ὥσπερ τὸ προοίμιον διήλθομεν. λέγε οὖν τίς ὁ τρόπος τῆς τοῦ διαλέγεσθαι δυνάμεως, καὶ 532e κατὰ ποῖα δὴ εἴδη διέστηκεν, καὶ τίνες αὖ ὁδοί· αὗται γὰρ ἂν ἤδη, ὡς ἔοικεν, αἱ πρὸς αὐτὸ ἄγουσαι εἶεν, οἷ ἀφικομένῳ ὥσπερ ὁδοῦ ἀνάπαυλα ἂν εἴη καὶ τέλος τῆς πορείας.
“I accept that,” he said. “And yet it seems to me altogether hard to accept, and in another way hard not to accept. All the same—since we don’t have to hear this only on the present occasion but must come back to it many times—let’s suppose that things are as has now been said, and go on to the song itself, and go through it the way we went through the prelude. So tell me what the character of the power of dialectic is, and 532e into what kinds it is divided, and what its paths are. These, it seems, would be the ones that lead to the place where, once one arrives, there would be a rest from the road and an end of the journey.”
οὐκέτʼ, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, ὦ φίλε Γλαύκων, οἷός τʼ ἔσῃ ἀκολουθεῖν—ἐπεὶ τό γʼ ἐμὸν οὐδὲν ἂν προθυμίας ἀπολίποι—οὐδʼ εἰκόνα ἂν ἔτι οὗ λέγομεν ἴδοις, ἀλλʼ αὐτὸ τὸ ἀληθές, ὅ γε δή μοι φαίνεται—εἰ δʼ ὄντως ἢ μή, οὐκέτʼ ἄξιον τοῦτο διισχυρίζεσθαι· ἀλλʼ ὅτι μὲν δὴ τοιοῦτόν τι ἰδεῖν, ἰσχυριστέον. ἦ γάρ;
τί μήν;
οὐκοῦν καὶ ὅτι ἡ τοῦ διαλέγεσθαι δύναμις μόνη ἂν φήνειεν ἐμπείρῳ ὄντι ὧν νυνδὴ διήλθομεν, ἄλλῃ δὲ οὐδαμῇ δυνατόν;
καὶ τοῦτʼ, ἔφη, ἄξιον διισχυρίζεσθαι. 533b
“You won’t be able to follow me any further, my dear Glaucon,” I said—“though there would be no lack of eagerness on my side—and you would no longer be seeing an image of what we’re talking about, but the truth itself, at least as it appears to me. Whether it is really so or not, it isn’t worth insisting on that any longer. But that there is something like this to be seen—that we must insist on. Isn’t that so?”
“Of course.”
“And also that only the power of dialectic could reveal it, to someone experienced in the subjects we’ve just gone through, and that it’s not possible in any other way?”
“That too,” he said, “is worth insisting on.” 533b
τόδε γοῦν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, οὐδεὶς ἡμῖν ἀμφισβητήσει λέγουσιν, ὡς αὐτοῦ γε ἑκάστου πέρι ὃ ἔστιν ἕκαστον ἄλλη τις ἐπιχειρεῖ μέθοδος ὁδῷ περὶ παντὸς λαμβάνειν. ἀλλʼ αἱ μὲν ἄλλαι πᾶσαι τέχναι ἢ πρὸς δόξας ἀνθρώπων καὶ ἐπιθυμίας εἰσὶν ἢ πρὸς γενέσεις τε καὶ συνθέσεις, ἢ πρὸς θεραπείαν τῶν φυομένων τε καὶ συντιθεμένων ἅπασαι τετράφαται· αἱ δὲ λοιπαί, ἃς τοῦ ὄντος τι ἔφαμεν ἐπιλαμβάνεσθαι, γεωμετρίας τε καὶ τὰς ταύτῃ ἑπομένας, ὁρῶμεν ὡς ὀνειρώττουσι μὲν 533c περὶ τὸ ὄν, ὕπαρ δὲ ἀδύνατον αὐταῖς ἰδεῖν, ἕως ἂν ὑποθέσεσι χρώμεναι ταύτας ἀκινήτους ἐῶσι, μὴ δυνάμεναι λόγον διδόναι αὐτῶν. ᾧ γὰρ ἀρχὴ μὲν ὃ μὴ οἶδε, τελευτὴ δὲ καὶ τὰ μεταξὺ ἐξ οὗ μὴ οἶδεν συμπέπλεκται, τίς μηχανὴ τὴν τοιαύτην ὁμολογίαν ποτὲ ἐπιστήμην γενέσθαι;
“This much, anyway, no one will dispute when we say it,” I said: “that no other inquiry attempts to grasp systematically, in every case, what each thing itself is. All the other arts are directed either to human opinions and desires, or to generation and composition, or to the care of things that grow or are put together. As for the rest, which we said grasp something of what is—geometry and the ones that follow it—we see that they dream 533c about what is, but are unable to see it in waking life so long as they use hypotheses and leave them undisturbed, unable to give an account of them. When your starting point is something you don’t know, and your conclusion and the steps in between are woven together out of what you don’t know, how could such an agreement ever become knowledge?”
οὐκοῦν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, ἡ διαλεκτικὴ μέθοδος μόνη ταύτῃ πορεύεται, τὰς ὑποθέσεις ἀναιροῦσα, ἐπʼ αὐτὴν τὴν ἀρχὴν 533d ἵνα βεβαιώσηται, καὶ τῷ ὄντι ἐν βορβόρῳ βαρβαρικῷ τινι τὸ τῆς ψυχῆς ὄμμα κατορωρυγμένον ἠρέμα ἕλκει καὶ ἀνάγει ἄνω, συνερίθοις καὶ συμπεριαγωγοῖς χρωμένη αἷς διήλθομεν τέχναις· ἃς ἐπιστήμας μὲν πολλάκις προσείπομεν διὰ τὸ ἔθος, δέονται δὲ ὀνόματος ἄλλου, ἐναργεστέρου μὲν ἢ δόξης, ἀμυδροτέρου δὲ ἢ ἐπιστήμης—διάνοιαν δὲ αὐτὴν ἔν γε τῷ πρόσθεν που ὡρισάμεθα—ἔστι δʼ, ὡς ἐμοὶ δοκεῖ, οὐ περὶ 533e ὀνόματος ἀμφισβήτησις, οἷς τοσούτων πέρι σκέψις ὅσων ἡμῖν πρόκειται.
“Then only the dialectical method proceeds in this way,” I said, “doing away with the hypotheses and going to the first principle itself, 533d so as to make them secure. And when the eye of the soul is really buried in some outlandish mire, dialectic gently draws it out and leads it upward, using as helpers and fellow guides in the turning around the arts we went through. We have often called these knowledge, out of habit, but they need another name, clearer than opinion but dimmer than knowledge—somewhere earlier we defined it as thought. But I don’t think there should be any dispute about 533e a name, for people who have to investigate things as important as those before us.”
οὐ γὰρ οὖν, ἔφη.
ἀλλʼ ὃ ἂν μόνον δηλοῖ πως τὴν ἕξιν σαφηνείᾳ λέγειν ἐν ψυχῇ ἀρκέσει;
ναί.
“No, there shouldn’t,” he said.
“So it will be enough to use whatever name merely makes clear, in some way, the state in the soul we mean?”
“Yes.”
ἀρκέσει οὖν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, ὥσπερ τὸ πρότερον, τὴν μὲν πρώτην μοῖραν ἐπιστήμην καλεῖν, δευτέραν δὲ διάνοιαν, τρίτην 534a δὲ πίστιν καὶ εἰκασίαν τετάρτην· καὶ συναμφότερα μὲν ταῦτα δόξαν, συναμφότερα δʼ ἐκεῖνα νόησιν· καὶ δόξαν μὲν περὶ γένεσιν, νόησιν δὲ περὶ οὐσίαν· καὶ ὅτι οὐσία πρὸς γένεσιν, νόησιν πρὸς δόξαν, καὶ ὅτι νόησις πρὸς δόξαν, ἐπιστήμην πρὸς πίστιν καὶ διάνοιαν πρὸς εἰκασίαν· τὴν δʼ ἐφʼ οἷς ταῦτα ἀναλογίαν καὶ διαίρεσιν διχῇ ἑκατέρου, δοξαστοῦ τε καὶ νοητοῦ, ἐῶμεν, ὦ Γλαύκων, ἵνα μὴ ἡμᾶς πολλαπλασίων λόγων ἐμπλήσῃ ἢ ὅσων οἱ παρεληλυθότες. 534b
“Then it will be enough,” I said, “as before, to call the first section knowledge, the second thought, the third 534a belief, and the fourth imagination; and the last two together opinion, and the first two together understanding. Opinion is concerned with becoming, and understanding with being. As being is to becoming, so understanding is to opinion; and as understanding is to opinion, so knowledge is to belief and thought to imagination. But the proportion between the things these are set over, and the division of each of the two—the opinable and the intelligible—into two parts, let’s leave aside, Glaucon, so that it doesn’t fill us up with arguments many times longer than the ones we’ve already been through.” 534b
ἀλλὰ μὴν ἔμοιγʼ, ἔφη, τά γε ἄλλα, καθʼ ὅσον δύναμαι ἕπεσθαι, συνδοκεῖ.
ἦ καὶ διαλεκτικὸν καλεῖς τὸν λόγον ἑκάστου λαμβάνοντα τῆς οὐσίας; καὶ τὸν μὴ ἔχοντα, καθʼ ὅσον ἂν μὴ ἔχῃ λόγον αὑτῷ τε καὶ ἄλλῳ διδόναι, κατὰ τοσοῦτον νοῦν περὶ τούτου οὐ φήσεις ἔχειν;
πῶς γὰρ ἄν, ἦ δʼ ὅς, φαίην;
“As for the rest,” he said, “I agree with you, so far as I can follow.”
“And do you also call someone a dialectician who grasps the account of the being of each thing? And as for someone who can’t, won’t you say that insofar as he is unable to give an account to himself and to another, to that extent he lacks understanding of it?”
“How could I say otherwise?” he said.
οὐκοῦν καὶ περὶ τοῦ ἀγαθοῦ ὡσαύτως· ὃς ἂν μὴ ἔχῃ διορίσασθαι τῷ λόγῳ ἀπὸ τῶν ἄλλων πάντων ἀφελὼν τὴν 534c τοῦ ἀγαθοῦ ἰδέαν, καὶ ὥσπερ ἐν μάχῃ διὰ πάντων ἐλέγχων διεξιών, μὴ κατὰ δόξαν ἀλλὰ κατʼ οὐσίαν προθυμούμενος ἐλέγχειν, ἐν πᾶσι τούτοις ἀπτῶτι τῷ λόγῳ διαπορεύηται, οὔτε αὐτὸ τὸ ἀγαθὸν φήσεις εἰδέναι τὸν οὕτως ἔχοντα οὔτε ἄλλο ἀγαθὸν οὐδέν, ἀλλʼ εἴ πῃ εἰδώλου τινὸς ἐφάπτεται, δόξῃ, οὐκ ἐπιστήμῃ ἐφάπτεσθαι, καὶ τὸν νῦν βίον ὀνειροπολοῦντα καὶ ὑπνώττοντα, πρὶν ἐνθάδʼ ἐξεγρέσθαι, εἰς Ἅιδου 534d πρότερον ἀφικόμενον τελέως ἐπικαταδαρθεῖν;
“And the same goes for the good. Suppose someone can’t distinguish in an account the 534c form of the good, separating it from everything else, and can’t come through all the tests as if in battle, eager to test things by what they are rather than by what people think of them, and make his way through all of this with his account never falling. Won’t you say that someone in that condition doesn’t know the good itself, or any other good either, and that if he somehow grasps an image of it, he grasps it by opinion, not by knowledge? And that he is dreaming and dozing through his present life, and before he wakes up here, he’ll arrive in Hades 534d and fall asleep there for good?”
νὴ τὸν Δία, ἦ δʼ ὅς, σφόδρα γε πάντα ταῦτα φήσω.
ἀλλὰ μὴν τούς γε σαυτοῦ παῖδας, οὓς τῷ λόγῳ τρέφεις τε καὶ παιδεύεις, εἴ ποτε ἔργῳ τρέφοις, οὐκ ἂν ἐάσαις, ὡς ἐγᾦμαι, ἀλόγους ὄντας ὥσπερ γραμμάς, ἄρχοντας ἐν τῇ πόλει κυρίους τῶν μεγίστων εἶναι.
οὐ γὰρ οὖν, ἔφη.
νομοθετήσεις δὴ αὐτοῖς ταύτης μάλιστα τῆς παιδείας ἀντιλαμβάνεσθαι, ἐξ ἧς ἐρωτᾶν τε καὶ ἀποκρίνεσθαι ἐπιστημονέστατα οἷοί τʼ ἔσονται; 534e
νομοθετήσω, ἔφη, μετά γε σοῦ.
“Yes, by Zeus,” he said, “I’ll certainly say all that.”
“Well then, as for your own children, whom you are raising and educating in words—if you ever raised them in fact, I don’t imagine you would let them be rulers in the city, with authority over the most important matters, while they were as irrational as lines in geometry.”
“No, I wouldn’t,” he said.
“Then you’ll make it a law that they give particular attention to this education, which will enable them to ask and answer questions with the most knowledge?” 534e
“I will,” he said, “together with you.”
ἆρʼ οὖν δοκεῖ σοι, ἔφην ἐγώ, ὥσπερ θριγκὸς τοῖς μαθήμασιν ἡ διαλεκτικὴ ἡμῖν ἐπάνω κεῖσθαι, καὶ οὐκέτʼ ἄλλο τούτου μάθημα ἀνωτέρω ὀρθῶς ἂν ἐπιτίθεσθαι, ἀλλʼ ἔχειν 535a ἤδη τέλος τὰ τῶν μαθημάτων;
ἔμοιγʼ, ἔφη.
διανομὴ τοίνυν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, τὸ λοιπόν σοι, τίσιν ταῦτα τὰ μαθήματα δώσομεν καὶ τίνα τρόπον.
δῆλον, ἔφη.
μέμνησαι οὖν τὴν προτέραν ἐκλογὴν τῶν ἀρχόντων, οἵους ἐξελέξαμεν;
πῶς γάρ, ἦ δʼ ὅς, οὔ;
“So do you think,” I said, “that dialectic lies on top of our subjects like a coping stone, and that no other subject can rightly be placed above it, but that the subjects of study 535a have now reached their end?”
“I do,” he said.
“Then what remains for you,” I said, “is the distribution: to whom we are to give these subjects, and in what way.”
“Clearly,” he said.
“Do you remember our earlier selection of rulers, and what sort of people we chose?”
“Of course I do,” he said.
Choosing and training the rulers
Socrates describes selecting the rulers by nature and training them in stages until age fifty.
τὰ μὲν ἄλλα τοίνυν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, ἐκείνας τὰς φύσεις οἴου δεῖν ἐκλεκτέας εἶναι· τούς τε γὰρ βεβαιοτάτους καὶ τοὺς ἀνδρειοτάτους προαιρετέον, καὶ κατὰ δύναμιν τοὺς εὐειδεστάτους· 535b πρὸς δὲ τούτοις ζητητέον μὴ μόνον γενναίους τε καὶ βλοσυροὺς τὰ ἤθη, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἃ τῇδε τῇ παιδείᾳ τῆς φύσεως πρόσφορα ἑκτέον αὐτοῖς.
ποῖα δὴ διαστέλλῃ;
“Well, in other respects,” I said, “you should assume those are the natures that must be chosen. We must prefer the steadiest and the most courageous, and, as far as possible, the best-looking. 535b But besides this, we must look for people who are not only noble and stern in character, but who also have the natural qualities that suit them for this education.”
“What qualities are you specifying?”
δριμύτητα, ὦ μακάριε, ἔφην, δεῖ αὐτοῖς πρὸς τὰ μαθήματα ὑπάρχειν, καὶ μὴ χαλεπῶς μανθάνειν. πολὺ γάρ τοι μᾶλλον ἀποδειλιῶσι ψυχαὶ ἐν ἰσχυροῖς μαθήμασιν ἢ ἐν γυμνασίοις· οἰκειότερος γὰρ αὐταῖς ὁ πόνος, ἴδιος ἀλλʼ οὐ κοινὸς ὢν μετὰ τοῦ σώματος.
ἀληθῆ, ἔφη. 535c
καὶ μνήμονα δὴ καὶ ἄρρατον καὶ πάντῃ φιλόπονον ζητητέον. ἢ τίνι τρόπῳ οἴει τά τε τοῦ σώματος ἐθελήσειν τινὰ διαπονεῖν καὶ τοσαύτην μάθησίν τε καὶ μελέτην ἐπιτελεῖν;
οὐδένα, ἦ δʼ ὅς, ἐὰν μὴ παντάπασί γʼ ᾖ εὐφυής.
“They need keenness for their studies, my good friend,” I said, “and must not find learning hard. Souls are much more likely to lose heart in hard studies than in physical training, since the toil is closer to home: it belongs to the soul alone and isn’t shared with the body.”
“True,” he said. 535c
“And we must look for someone with a good memory, who is tireless and loves hard work in every way. Otherwise how do you think anyone will be willing both to put his body through its labors and to complete so much study and practice?”
“No one will,” he said, “unless he is altogether well endowed by nature.”
τὸ γοῦν νῦν ἁμάρτημα, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, καὶ ἡ ἀτιμία φιλοσοφίᾳ διὰ ταῦτα προσπέπτωκεν, ὃ καὶ πρότερον εἴπομεν, ὅτι οὐ κατʼ ἀξίαν αὐτῆς ἅπτονται· οὐ γὰρ νόθους ἔδει ἅπτεσθαι, ἀλλὰ γνησίους.
πῶς; ἔφη. 535d
“At any rate the present mistake,” I said, “and the discredit that has fallen on philosophy because of it, come from this, as we said before: people take it up without being worthy of it. Illegitimate students shouldn’t take it up, but legitimate ones.”
“How do you mean?” he said. 535d
πρῶτον μέν, εἶπον, φιλοπονίᾳ οὐ χωλὸν δεῖ εἶναι τὸν ἁψόμενον, τὰ μὲν ἡμίσεα φιλόπονον ὄντα, τὰ δʼ ἡμίσεα ἄπονον. ἔστι δὲ τοῦτο, ὅταν τις φιλογυμναστὴς μὲν καὶ φιλόθηρος ᾖ καὶ πάντα τὰ διὰ τοῦ σώματος φιλοπονῇ, φιλομαθὴς δὲ μή, μηδὲ φιλήκοος μηδὲ ζητητικός, ἀλλʼ ἐν πᾶσι τούτοις μισοπονῇ· χωλὸς δὲ καὶ ὁ τἀναντία τούτου μεταβεβληκὼς τὴν φιλοπονίαν.
ἀληθέστατα, ἔφη, λέγεις.
“First,” I said, “whoever takes it up must not limp in his love of hard work, loving work in one half of things and shirking it in the other. That’s what happens when someone loves physical training and hunting and loves every labor done through the body, but doesn’t love learning or listening or inquiring, and hates work in all of these. And someone whose love of work has swung to the opposite side limps too.”
“That’s very true,” he said.
οὐκοῦν καὶ πρὸς ἀλήθειαν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, ταὐτὸν τοῦτο ἀνάπηρον 535e ψυχὴν θήσομεν, ἣ ἂν τὸ μὲν ἑκούσιον ψεῦδος μισῇ καὶ χαλεπῶς φέρῃ αὐτή τε καὶ ἑτέρων ψευδομένων ὑπεραγανακτῇ, τὸ δʼ ἀκούσιον εὐκόλως προσδέχηται καὶ ἀμαθαίνουσά που ἁλισκομένη μὴ ἀγανακτῇ, ἀλλʼ εὐχερῶς ὥσπερ θηρίον ὕειον ἐν ἀμαθίᾳ μολύνηται;
παντάπασι μὲν οὖν, ἔφη.
“And with regard to truth,” I said, “won’t we count as maimed in the same way 535e a soul that hates the voluntary lie, finding it hard to bear itself and growing furious when others lie, but readily accepts the involuntary lie, and isn’t upset when it’s caught being ignorant, but wallows in its ignorance as contentedly as a pig?”
“Absolutely,” he said.
καὶ πρὸς σωφροσύνην, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, καὶ ἀνδρείαν καὶ μεγαλοπρέπειαν καὶ πάντα τὰ τῆς ἀρετῆς μέρη οὐχ ἥκιστα δεῖ φυλάττειν τὸν νόθον τε καὶ τὸν γνήσιον. ὅταν γάρ τις μὴ ἐπίστηται πάντῃ τὰ τοιαῦτα σκοπεῖν καὶ ἰδιώτης καὶ πόλις, λανθάνουσι χωλοῖς τε καὶ νόθοις χρώμενοι πρὸς ὅτι ἂν τύχωσι τούτων, οἱ μὲν φίλοις, οἱ δὲ ἄρχουσι.
καὶ μάλα, ἔφη, οὕτως ἔχει.
“And with regard to moderation,” I said, “and courage and greatness of spirit and all the parts of excellence, we must watch especially closely for the illegitimate and the legitimate. When a private person or a city doesn’t know how to look at such things from every angle, they unwittingly employ the limping and the illegitimate for whichever of these purposes they happen to need—the one as friends, the other as rulers.”
“That’s exactly how it is,” he said.
ἡμῖν δή, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, πάντα τὰ τοιαῦτα διευλαβητέον· 536b ὡς ἐὰν μὲν ἀρτιμελεῖς τε καὶ ἀρτίφρονας ἐπὶ τοσαύτην μάθησιν καὶ τοσαύτην ἄσκησιν κομίσαντες παιδεύωμεν, ἥ τε δίκη ἡμῖν οὐ μέμψεται αὐτή, τήν τε πόλιν καὶ πολιτείαν σώσομεν, ἀλλοίους δὲ ἄγοντες ἐπὶ ταῦτα τἀναντία πάντα καὶ πράξομεν καὶ φιλοσοφίας ἔτι πλείω γέλωτα καταντλήσομεν.
αἰσχρὸν μεντἂν εἴη, ἦ δʼ ὅς.
πάνυ μὲν οὖν, εἶπον· γελοῖον δʼ ἔγωγε καὶ ἐν τῷ παρόντι τι ἔοικα παθεῖν.
τὸ ποῖον; ἔφη. 536c
“So we must be very careful about all these things,” I said. 536b “If we bring people sound of limb and sound of mind to so much learning and so much training, and educate them, then Justice herself won’t find fault with us, and we’ll preserve the city and its constitution. But if we bring people of another sort to these things, we’ll do the very opposite, and pour an even greater flood of ridicule over philosophy.”
“That would certainly be shameful,” he said.
“Very much so,” I said. “But I think I’ve just done something rather ridiculous myself.”
“What’s that?” he said. 536c
ἐπελαθόμην, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, ὅτι ἐπαίζομεν, καὶ μᾶλλον ἐντεινάμενος εἶπον. λέγων γὰρ ἅμα ἔβλεψα πρὸς φιλοσοφίαν, καὶ ἰδὼν προπεπηλακισμένην ἀναξίως ἀγανακτήσας μοι δοκῶ καὶ ὥσπερ θυμωθεὶς τοῖς αἰτίοις σπουδαιότερον εἰπεῖν ἃ εἶπον.
οὐ μὰ τὸν Δίʼ, ἔφη, οὔκουν ὥς γʼ ἐμοὶ ἀκροατῇ.
“I forgot we were only playing,” I said, “and spoke too intensely. As I was talking I glanced at philosophy, and when I saw her undeservedly trampled in the mud, I think I got indignant and, as if angry with those responsible, said what I said too seriously.”
“No, by Zeus,” he said, “not too seriously for me as a listener.”
ἀλλʼ ὡς ἐμοί, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, ῥήτορι. τόδε δὲ μὴ ἐπιλανθανώμεθα, ὅτι ἐν μὲν τῇ προτέρᾳ ἐκλογῇ πρεσβύτας ἐξελέγομεν, 536d ἐν δὲ ταύτῃ οὐκ ἐγχωρήσει· Σόλωνι γὰρ οὐ πειστέον ὡς γηράσκων τις πολλὰ δυνατὸς μανθάνειν, ἀλλʼ ἧττον ἢ τρέχειν, νέων δὲ πάντες οἱ μεγάλοι καὶ οἱ πολλοὶ πόνοι.
ἀνάγκη, ἔφη.
τὰ μὲν τοίνυν λογισμῶν τε καὶ γεωμετριῶν καὶ πάσης τῆς προπαιδείας, ἣν τῆς διαλεκτικῆς δεῖ προπαιδευθῆναι, παισὶν οὖσι χρὴ προβάλλειν, οὐχ ὡς ἐπάναγκες μαθεῖν τὸ σχῆμα τῆς διδαχῆς ποιουμένους.
τί δή; 536e
“But too seriously for me as a speaker,” I said. “Now let’s not forget this: in our earlier selection we chose older people, 536d but in this one that won’t do. We mustn’t believe Solon when he says that someone growing old can learn many things; he can learn even less than he can run. All great and numerous labors belong to the young.”
“Necessarily,” he said.
“So arithmetic and geometry and all the preliminary education that must come before dialectic should be put before them while they are children—but not by giving the teaching the form of compulsion.”
“Why not?” 536e
ὅτι, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, οὐδὲν μάθημα μετὰ δουλείας τὸν ἐλεύθερον χρὴ μανθάνειν. οἱ μὲν γὰρ τοῦ σώματος πόνοι βίᾳ πονούμενοι χεῖρον οὐδὲν τὸ σῶμα ἀπεργάζονται, ψυχῇ δὲ βίαιον οὐδὲν ἔμμονον μάθημα.
ἀληθῆ, ἔφη.
μὴ τοίνυν βίᾳ, εἶπον, ὦ ἄριστε, τοὺς παῖδας ἐν τοῖς 537a μαθήμασιν ἀλλὰ παίζοντας τρέφε, ἵνα καὶ μᾶλλον οἷός τʼ ᾖς καθορᾶν ἐφʼ ὃ ἕκαστος πέφυκεν.
ἔχει ὃ λέγεις, ἔφη, λόγον.
“Because,” I said, “a free person shouldn’t learn any subject like a slave. Physical labors, when forced, do the body no harm, but nothing learned by force stays in the soul.”
“True,” he said.
“Then don’t use force, my excellent friend,” I said, “in bringing up the children in their 537a studies, but let them learn through play. That way you’ll also be better able to see what each of them is naturally suited for.”
“What you say makes sense,” he said.
οὐκοῦν μνημονεύεις, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, ὅτι καὶ εἰς τὸν πόλεμον ἔφαμεν τοὺς παῖδας εἶναι ἀκτέον ἐπὶ τῶν ἵππων θεωρούς, καὶ ἐάν που ἀσφαλὲς ᾖ, προσακτέον ἐγγὺς καὶ γευστέον αἵματος, ὥσπερ τοὺς σκύλακας;
μέμνημαι, ἔφη.
ἐν πᾶσι δὴ τούτοις, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, τοῖς τε πόνοις καὶ μαθήμασι καὶ φόβοις ὃς ἂν ἐντρεχέστατος ἀεὶ φαίνηται, εἰς ἀριθμόν τινα ἐγκριτέον. 537b
ἐν τίνι, ἔφη, ἡλικίᾳ;
“And do you remember,” I said, “that we said the children should also be taken to war on horseback as spectators, and, wherever it’s safe, be brought up close and given a taste of blood, like puppies?”
“I remember,” he said.
“Then in all these things,” I said, “the labors, the studies and the dangers, whoever always proves most adept must be enrolled in a select group.” 537b
“At what age?” he said.
ἡνίκα, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, τῶν ἀναγκαίων γυμνασίων μεθίενται· οὗτος γὰρ ὁ χρόνος, ἐάντε δύο ἐάντε τρία ἔτη γίγνηται, ἀδύνατός τι ἄλλο πρᾶξαι· κόποι γὰρ καὶ ὕπνοι μαθήμασι πολέμιοι. καὶ ἅμα μία καὶ αὕτη τῶν βασάνων οὐκ ἐλαχίστη, τίς ἕκαστος ἐν τοῖς γυμνασίοις φανεῖται.
πῶς γὰρ οὔκ; ἔφη.
“When they are released from their compulsory physical training,” I said. “That period, whether it lasts two years or three, leaves them unable to do anything else, since fatigue and sleep are enemies of study. And at the same time, how each of them shows up in that training is itself one of the tests, and not the least of them.”
“Of course,” he said.
μετὰ δὴ τοῦτον τὸν χρόνον, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, ἐκ τῶν εἰκοσιετῶν οἱ προκριθέντες τιμάς τε μείζους τῶν ἄλλων οἴσονται, 537c τά τε χύδην μαθήματα παισὶν ἐν τῇ παιδείᾳ γενόμενα τούτοις συνακτέον εἰς σύνοψιν οἰκειότητός τε ἀλλήλων τῶν μαθημάτων καὶ τῆς τοῦ ὄντος φύσεως.
μόνη γοῦν, εἶπεν, ἡ τοιαύτη μάθησις βέβαιος, ἐν οἷς ἂν ἐγγένηται.
καὶ μεγίστη γε, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, πεῖρα διαλεκτικῆς φύσεως καὶ μή· ὁ μὲν γὰρ συνοπτικὸς διαλεκτικός, ὁ δὲ μὴ οὔ.
συνοίομαι, ἦ δʼ ὅς.
“After that period,” I said, “those picked out from among the twenty-year-olds will receive greater honors than the others, 537c and the subjects they studied haphazardly as children in their education must be brought together for them into an overview of the kinship of the subjects with one another and with the nature of what is.”
“That’s the only kind of learning,” he said, “that stays firm in those who acquire it.”
“And it’s the greatest test,” I said, “of whether someone’s nature is dialectical or not. Whoever can see things together is dialectical, and whoever can’t is not.”
“I agree,” he said.
ταῦτα τοίνυν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, δεήσει σε ἐπισκοποῦντα οἳ ἂν 537d μάλιστα τοιοῦτοι ἐν αὐτοῖς ὦσι καὶ μόνιμοι μὲν ἐν μαθήμασι, μόνιμοι δʼ ἐν πολέμῳ καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις νομίμοις, τούτους αὖ, ἐπειδὰν τὰ τριάκοντα ἔτη ἐκβαίνωσιν, ἐκ τῶν προκρίτων προκρινάμενον εἰς μείζους τε τιμὰς καθιστάναι καὶ σκοπεῖν, τῇ τοῦ διαλέγεσθαι δυνάμει βασανίζοντα τίς ὀμμάτων καὶ τῆς ἄλλης αἰσθήσεως δυνατὸς μεθιέμενος ἐπʼ αὐτὸ τὸ ὂν μετʼ ἀληθείας ἰέναι. καὶ ἐνταῦθα δὴ πολλῆς φυλακῆς ἔργον, ὦ ἑταῖρε.
τί μάλιστα; ἦ δʼ ὅς. 537e
“So you will have to keep an eye on this,” I said, “and see who 537d are most like this among them, steadfast in their studies and steadfast in war and in the other things required of them. When they pass the age of thirty, you must select them again from among those already selected and place them in still greater honors, and examine them, testing them by the power of dialectic to see which of them can let go of his eyes and the rest of his senses and go on, in company with truth, to what is itself. And this is where a great deal of caution is needed, my friend.”
“Why, especially?” he said. 537e
The dangers of argument
Socrates warns that early exposure to argument makes young people lawless, then turns to the worse constitutions.
οὐκ ἐννοεῖς, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, τὸ νῦν περὶ τὸ διαλέγεσθαι κακὸν γιγνόμενον ὅσον γίγνεται;
τὸ ποῖον; ἔφη.
παρανομίας που, ἔφην ἐγώ, ἐμπίμπλανται.
καὶ μάλα, ἔφη.
θαυμαστὸν οὖν τι οἴει, εἶπον, πάσχειν αὐτούς, καὶ οὐ συγγιγνώσκεις;
πῇ μάλιστα; ἔφη.
“Don’t you realize,” I said, “how great an evil is arising around dialectic at present?”
“What evil?” he said.
“Its practitioners are filled with lawlessness, I suppose,” I said.
“They certainly are,” he said.
“Do you think there’s anything surprising in what’s happening to them?” I said. “Don’t you sympathize?”
“Why in particular?” he said.
οἷον, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, εἴ τις ὑποβολιμαῖος τραφείη ἐν πολλοῖς 538a μὲν χρήμασι, πολλῷ δὲ καὶ μεγάλῳ γένει καὶ κόλαξι πολλοῖς, ἀνὴρ δὲ γενόμενος αἴσθοιτο ὅτι οὐ τούτων ἐστὶ τῶν φασκόντων γονέων, τοὺς δὲ τῷ ὄντι γεννήσαντας μὴ εὕροι, τοῦτον ἔχεις μαντεύσασθαι πῶς ἂν διατεθείη πρός τε τοὺς κόλακας καὶ πρὸς τοὺς ὑποβαλομένους ἐν ἐκείνῳ τε τῷ χρόνῳ ᾧ οὐκ ᾔδει τὰ περὶ τῆς ὑποβολῆς, καὶ ἐν ᾧ αὖ ᾔδει; ἢ βούλει ἐμοῦ μαντευομένου ἀκοῦσαι;
βούλομαι, ἔφη.
“It’s like this,” I said. “Suppose a child passed off as someone else’s were brought up amid great 538a wealth, in a large and important family, with many flatterers around him, and when he became a man realized that he was not the son of those who claimed to be his parents, but couldn’t find the people who were really his parents. Can you guess how he would be disposed toward the flatterers and toward those who had taken him in as their own, both during the time when he didn’t know the truth about the substitution and during the time when he did? Or would you like to hear my guess?”
“I would,” he said.
μαντεύομαι τοίνυν, εἶπον, μᾶλλον αὐτὸν τιμᾶν ἂν τὸν 538b πατέρα καὶ τὴν μητέρα καὶ τοὺς ἄλλους οἰκείους δοκοῦντας ἢ τοὺς κολακεύοντας, καὶ ἧττον μὲν ἂν περιιδεῖν ἐνδεεῖς τινος, ἧττον δὲ παράνομόν τι δρᾶσαι ἢ εἰπεῖν εἰς αὐτούς, ἧττον δὲ ἀπειθεῖν τὰ μεγάλα ἐκείνοις ἢ τοῖς κόλαξιν, ἐν ᾧ χρόνῳ τὸ ἀληθὲς μὴ εἰδείη.
εἰκός, ἔφη.
“Well, my guess,” I said, “is that he would honor his supposed 538b father and mother and other relatives more than the flatterers. He would be less likely to let them go in need of anything, less likely to do or say anything lawless against them, and less likely to disobey them in important matters than the flatterers—during the time when he didn’t know the truth.”
“Likely enough,” he said.
αἰσθόμενον τοίνυν τὸ ὂν μαντεύομαι αὖ περὶ μὲν τούτους ἀνεῖναι ἂν τὸ τιμᾶν τε καὶ σπουδάζειν, περὶ δὲ τοὺς κόλακας ἐπιτεῖναι, καὶ πείθεσθαί τε αὐτοῖς διαφερόντως ἢ πρότερον 538c καὶ ζῆν ἂν ἤδη κατʼ ἐκείνους, συνόντα αὐτοῖς ἀπαρακαλύπτως, πατρὸς δὲ ἐκείνου καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ποιουμένων οἰκείων, εἰ μὴ πάνυ εἴη φύσει ἐπιεικής, μέλειν τὸ μηδέν.
πάντʼ, ἔφη, λέγεις οἷά περ ἂν γένοιτο. ἀλλὰ πῇ πρὸς τοὺς ἁπτομένους τῶν λόγων αὕτη φέρει ἡ εἰκών;
“But once he found out the facts, my guess is that his honor and devotion toward them would slacken and toward the flatterers would intensify. He would obey the flatterers far more than before 538c and start living by their standards, keeping company with them openly; and he would care nothing for that father and the other so-called relatives, unless he were of a very decent nature.”
“Everything you say is just what would happen,” he said. “But how does this image apply to those who take up arguments?”
τῇδε. ἔστι που ἡμῖν δόγματα ἐκ παίδων περὶ δικαίων καὶ καλῶν, ἐν οἷς ἐκτεθράμμεθα ὥσπερ ὑπὸ γονεῦσι, πειθαρχοῦντές τε καὶ τιμῶντες αὐτά.
ἔστι γάρ. 538d
οὐκοῦν καὶ ἄλλα ἐναντία τούτων ἐπιτηδεύματα ἡδονὰς ἔχοντα, ἃ κολακεύει μὲν ἡμῶν τὴν ψυχὴν καὶ ἕλκει ἐφʼ αὑτά, πείθει δʼ οὒ τοὺς καὶ ὁπῃοῦν μετρίους· ἀλλʼ ἐκεῖνα τιμῶσι τὰ πάτρια καὶ ἐκείνοις πειθαρχοῦσιν.
ἔστι ταῦτα.
“Like this. We have, I think, convictions from childhood about what is just and fine, and we have been brought up under them as if under parents, obeying and honoring them.”
“We do.” 538d
“And there are other practices opposed to these, which bring pleasures with them, flatter our soul and drag it toward themselves, but they don’t persuade anyone who is at all moderate. Such people honor those ancestral convictions and obey them.”
“That’s so.”
τί οὖν; ἦν δʼ ἐγώ· ὅταν τὸν οὕτως ἔχοντα ἐλθὸν ἐρώτημα ἔρηται· τί ἐστι τὸ καλόν, καὶ ἀποκριναμένου ὃ τοῦ νομοθέτου ἤκουεν ἐξελέγχῃ ὁ λόγος, καὶ πολλάκις καὶ πολλαχῇ ἐλέγχων εἰς δόξαν καταβάλῃ ὡς τοῦτο οὐδὲν μᾶλλον 538e καλὸν ἢ αἰσχρόν, καὶ περὶ δικαίου ὡσαύτως καὶ ἀγαθοῦ καὶ ἃ μάλιστα ἦγεν ἐν τιμῇ, μετὰ τοῦτο τί οἴει ποιήσειν αὐτὸν πρὸς αὐτὰ τιμῆς τε πέρι καὶ πειθαρχίας;
ἀνάγκη, ἔφη, μήτε τιμᾶν ἔτι ὁμοίως μήτε πείθεσθαι.
“Well then,” I said, “when someone in this condition is met by a question—‘What is the fine?’—and he answers what he heard from the lawgiver, and the argument refutes him, and by refuting him many times and in many ways reduces him to the opinion that this is no more 538e fine than shameful, and the same with the just and the good and the things he held in highest honor—after that, what do you think he’ll do about honoring and obeying them?”
“He’s bound to stop honoring and obeying them as he did,” he said.
ὅταν οὖν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, μήτε ταῦτα ἡγῆται τίμια καὶ οἰκεῖα ὥσπερ πρὸ τοῦ, τά τε ἀληθῆ μὴ εὑρίσκῃ, ἔστι πρὸς ὁποῖον 539a βίον ἄλλον ἢ τὸν κολακεύοντα εἰκότως προσχωρήσεται;
οὐκ ἔστιν, ἔφη.
παράνομος δὴ οἶμαι δόξει γεγονέναι ἐκ νομίμου.
ἀνάγκη.
οὐκοῦν, ἔφην, εἰκὸς τὸ πάθος τῶν οὕτω λόγων ἁπτομένων καί, ὃ ἄρτι ἔλεγον, πολλῆς συγγνώμης ἄξιον;
καὶ ἐλέου γʼ, ἔφη.
οὐκοῦν ἵνα μὴ γίγνηται ὁ ἔλεος οὗτος περὶ τοὺς τριακοντούτας σοι, εὐλαβουμένῳ παντὶ τρόπῳ τῶν λόγων ἁπτέον;
καὶ μάλʼ, ἦ δʼ ὅς. 539b
“And when he no longer thinks these things are worthy of honor and his own, as he did before,” I said, “and he doesn’t find the true ones, what kind of 539a life will he naturally turn to, other than the one that flatters him?”
“None,” he said.
“So he’ll be seen, I think, to have turned lawless from law-abiding.”
“Necessarily.”
“Then isn’t this natural,” I said, “for those who take up arguments this way, and, as I said just now, deserving of much sympathy?”
“And pity too,” he said.
“So that this pity doesn’t arise concerning your thirty-year-olds, mustn’t they take up arguments with every possible precaution?”
“Very much so,” he said. 539b
ἆρʼ οὖν οὐ μία μὲν εὐλάβεια αὕτη συχνή, τὸ μὴ νέους ὄντας αὐτῶν γεύεσθαι; οἶμαι γάρ σε οὐ λεληθέναι ὅτι οἱ μειρακίσκοι, ὅταν τὸ πρῶτον λόγων γεύωνται, ὡς παιδιᾷ αὐτοῖς καταχρῶνται, ἀεὶ εἰς ἀντιλογίαν χρώμενοι, καὶ μιμούμενοι τοὺς ἐξελέγχοντας αὐτοὶ ἄλλους ἐλέγχουσι, χαίροντες ὥσπερ σκυλάκια τῷ ἕλκειν τε καὶ σπαράττειν τῷ λόγῳ τοὺς πλησίον ἀεί.
ὑπερφυῶς μὲν οὖν, ἔφη.
“And isn’t one important precaution not letting them taste arguments while they are young? I don’t think it has escaped you that when youngsters first get a taste of arguments, they misuse them as a game, always using them to contradict. They imitate those who refute them and refute others themselves, delighting like puppies in dragging and tearing apart with argument whoever happens to be near.”
“Enormously so,” he said.
οὐκοῦν ὅταν δὴ πολλοὺς μὲν αὐτοὶ ἐλέγξωσιν, ὑπὸ πολλῶν 539c δὲ ἐλεγχθῶσι, σφόδρα καὶ ταχὺ ἐμπίπτουσιν εἰς τὸ μηδὲν ἡγεῖσθαι ὧνπερ πρότερον· καὶ ἐκ τούτων δὴ αὐτοί τε καὶ τὸ ὅλον φιλοσοφίας πέρι εἰς τοὺς ἄλλους διαβέβληνται.
ἀληθέστατα, ἔφη.
ὁ δὲ δὴ πρεσβύτερος, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, τῆς μὲν τοιαύτης μανίας οὐκ ἂν ἐθέλοι μετέχειν, τὸν δὲ διαλέγεσθαι ἐθέλοντα καὶ σκοπεῖν τἀληθὲς μᾶλλον μιμήσεται ἢ τὸν παιδιᾶς χάριν παίζοντα καὶ ἀντιλέγοντα, καὶ αὐτός τε μετριώτερος ἔσται 539d καὶ τὸ ἐπιτήδευμα τιμιώτερον ἀντὶ ἀτιμοτέρου ποιήσει.
ὀρθῶς, ἔφη.
“So when they have refuted many people themselves, and been refuted by many, 539c they fall quickly and hard into believing nothing of what they believed before. And as a result, both they themselves and the whole of philosophy get a bad name with everyone else.”
“Very true,” he said.
“But an older man,” I said, “wouldn’t want to share in madness of this kind. He’ll imitate the one who is willing to engage in dialectic and look for the truth rather than the one who plays and contradicts for the sake of the game. He himself will be more measured, 539d and he’ll bring the practice honor instead of discredit.”
“Right,” he said.
οὐκοῦν καὶ τὰ προειρημένα τούτου ἐπʼ εὐλαβείᾳ πάντα προείρηται, τὸ τὰς φύσεις κοσμίους εἶναι καὶ στασίμους οἷς τις μεταδώσει τῶν λόγων, καὶ μὴ ὡς νῦν ὁ τυχὼν καὶ οὐδὲν προσήκων ἔρχεται ἐπʼ αὐτό;
πάνυ μὲν οὖν, ἔφη.
ἀρκεῖ δὴ ἐπὶ λόγων μεταλήψει μεῖναι ἐνδελεχῶς καὶ συντόνως μηδὲν ἄλλο πράττοντι, ἀλλʼ ἀντιστρόφως γυμναζομένῳ τοῖς περὶ τὸ σῶμα γυμνασίοις, ἔτη διπλάσια ἢ τότε; 539e
ἕξ, ἔφη, ἢ τέτταρα λέγεις;
“And wasn’t everything we said before this also said as a precaution—that those with whom one shares arguments must have orderly and steady natures, and not, as now, anyone who happens along, with no fitness for it at all?”
“Certainly,” he said.
“Then will it be enough for them to stay with the study of arguments, continuously and intensely, doing nothing else, exercising in them as they earlier exercised in bodily training, but for twice as many years?” 539e
“Do you mean six years or four?” he said.
ἀμέλει, εἶπον, πέντε θές. μετὰ γὰρ τοῦτο καταβιβαστέοι ἔσονταί σοι εἰς τὸ σπήλαιον πάλιν ἐκεῖνο, καὶ ἀναγκαστέοι ἄρχειν τά τε περὶ τὸν πόλεμον καὶ ὅσαι νέων ἀρχαί, ἵνα μηδʼ ἐμπειρίᾳ ὑστερῶσι τῶν ἄλλων· καὶ ἔτι καὶ ἐν τούτοις 540a βασανιστέοι εἰ ἐμμενοῦσιν ἑλκόμενοι πανταχόσε ἤ τι καὶ παρακινήσουσι.
χρόνον δέ, ἦ δʼ ὅς, πόσον τοῦτον τιθεῖς;
“Never mind,” I said, “make it five. After that you must make them go back down into that cave again, and compel them to hold office in matters of war and in all the offices suited to the young, so that they won’t fall short of the others in experience either. And there too 540a they must be tested, to see whether they’ll stand firm when pulled in every direction, or whether they’ll give way at all.”
“How long a time do you allow for this?” he said.
πεντεκαίδεκα ἔτη, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ. γενομένων δὲ πεντηκοντουτῶν τοὺς διασωθέντας καὶ ἀριστεύσαντας πάντα πάντῃ ἐν ἔργοις τε καὶ ἐπιστήμαις πρὸς τέλος ἤδη ἀκτέον, καὶ ἀναγκαστέον ἀνακλίναντας τὴν τῆς ψυχῆς αὐγὴν εἰς αὐτὸ ἀποβλέψαι τὸ πᾶσι φῶς παρέχον, καὶ ἰδόντας τὸ ἀγαθὸν αὐτό, παραδείγματι χρωμένους ἐκείνῳ, καὶ πόλιν καὶ ἰδιώτας 540b καὶ ἑαυτοὺς κοσμεῖν τὸν ἐπίλοιπον βίον ἐν μέρει ἑκάστους, τὸ μὲν πολὺ πρὸς φιλοσοφίᾳ διατρίβοντας, ὅταν δὲ τὸ μέρος ἥκῃ, πρὸς πολιτικοῖς ἐπιταλαιπωροῦντας καὶ ἄρχοντας ἑκάστους τῆς πόλεως ἕνεκα, οὐχ ὡς καλόν τι ἀλλʼ ὡς ἀναγκαῖον πράττοντας, καὶ οὕτως ἄλλους ἀεὶ παιδεύσαντας τοιούτους, ἀντικαταλιπόντας τῆς πόλεως φύλακας, εἰς μακάρων νήσους ἀπιόντας οἰκεῖν· μνημεῖα δʼ αὐτοῖς καὶ θυσίας 540c τὴν πόλιν δημοσίᾳ ποιεῖν, ἐὰν καὶ ἡ Πυθία συναναιρῇ, ὡς δαίμοσιν, εἰ δὲ μή, ὡς εὐδαίμοσί τε καὶ θείοις.
“Fifteen years,” I said. “And when they are fifty, those who have come through safely and have excelled in every way, both in action and in knowledge, must at last be led to the end. They must be compelled to lift up the radiance of their souls and look at the very thing that gives light to all, and when they have seen the good itself, they must use it as a model and put the city, private individuals 540b and themselves in order for the rest of their lives, each in turn. They will spend most of their time on philosophy, but when their turn comes, they will toil at political affairs and rule, each of them, for the city’s sake, doing it not as something fine but as something necessary. And so, having always educated others like themselves and left them behind in their place as guardians of the city, they will depart to live in the Isles of the Blessed. The city will establish memorials and sacrifices to them 540c at public expense—as to divinities, if the Pythia concurs, and if not, as to blessed and godlike men.”
παγκάλους, ἔφη, τοὺς ἄρχοντας, ὦ Σώκρατες, ὥσπερ ἀνδριαντοποιὸς ἀπείργασαι.
καὶ τὰς ἀρχούσας γε, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, ὦ Γλαύκων· μηδὲν γάρ τι οἴου με περὶ ἀνδρῶν εἰρηκέναι μᾶλλον ἃ εἴρηκα ἢ περὶ γυναικῶν, ὅσαι ἂν αὐτῶν ἱκαναὶ τὰς φύσεις ἐγγίγνωνται.
ὀρθῶς, ἔφη, εἴπερ ἴσα γε πάντα τοῖς ἀνδράσι κοινωνήσουσιν, ὡς διήλθομεν. 540d
“You’ve turned out rulers of perfect beauty, Socrates,” he said, “like a sculptor.”
“Women rulers too, Glaucon,” I said. “Don’t suppose that what I’ve said applies any more to men than to women—to those of them, that is, who are born with adequate natures.”
“That’s right,” he said, “if they’re to share everything equally with the men, as we described.” 540d
τί οὖν; ἔφην· συγχωρεῖτε περὶ τῆς πόλεώς τε καὶ πολιτείας μὴ παντάπασιν ἡμᾶς εὐχὰς εἰρηκέναι, ἀλλὰ χαλεπὰ μέν, δυνατὰ δέ πῃ, καὶ οὐκ ἄλλῃ ἢ εἴρηται, ὅταν οἱ ὡς ἀληθῶς φιλόσοφοι δυνάσται, ἢ πλείους ἢ εἷς, ἐν πόλει γενόμενοι τῶν μὲν νῦν τιμῶν καταφρονήσωσιν, ἡγησάμενοι ἀνελευθέρους εἶναι καὶ οὐδενὸς ἀξίας, τὸ δὲ ὀρθὸν περὶ 540e πλείστου ποιησάμενοι καὶ τὰς ἀπὸ τούτου τιμάς, μέγιστον δὲ καὶ ἀναγκαιότατον τὸ δίκαιον, καὶ τούτῳ δὴ ὑπηρετοῦντές τε καὶ αὔξοντες αὐτὸ διασκευωρήσωνται τὴν ἑαυτῶν πόλιν;
πῶς; ἔφη.
“Well then,” I said, “do you agree that what we’ve said about the city and its constitution isn’t altogether wishful thinking? It’s difficult, but possible somehow—and in no other way than the one we’ve described: when true philosophers, whether several or one, come to power in a city. They will scorn the honors of the present day, believing them unfit for a free man and worth nothing; they will value what is right, and the honors that come from it, above 540e everything, and hold justice the greatest and most necessary thing; and serving justice and making it grow, they will set their own city in order.”
“How?” he said.
ὅσοι μὲν ἄν, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ, πρεσβύτεροι τυγχάνωσι δεκετῶν 541a ἐν τῇ πόλει, πάντας ἐκπέμψωσιν εἰς τοὺς ἀγρούς, τοὺς δὲ παῖδας αὐτῶν παραλαβόντες ἐκτὸς τῶν νῦν ἠθῶν, ἃ καὶ οἱ γονῆς ἔχουσι, θρέψωνται ἐν τοῖς σφετέροις τρόποισι καὶ νόμοις, οὖσιν οἵοις διεληλύθαμεν τότε· καὶ οὕτω τάχιστά τε καὶ ῥᾷστα πόλιν τε καὶ πολιτείαν, ἣν ἐλέγομεν, καταστᾶσαν αὐτήν τε εὐδαιμονήσειν καὶ τὸ ἔθνος ἐν ᾧ ἂν ἐγγένηται πλεῖστα ὀνήσειν;
πολύ γʼ, ἔφη· καὶ ὡς ἂν γένοιτο, εἴπερ ποτὲ γίγνοιτο, 541b δοκεῖς μοι, ὦ Σώκρατες, εὖ εἰρηκέναι.
“They’ll send everyone in the city over ten years old 541a out into the country,” I said. “They’ll take charge of their children, away from the present habits that their parents share, and raise them in their own ways and laws, which are the ones we described earlier. Isn’t this the quickest and easiest way for the city and constitution we were describing to be established, to be happy itself, and to bring the greatest benefit to the people among whom it arises?”
“Much the quickest,” he said. “And how it would come about, if it ever did, 541b I think you’ve explained well, Socrates.”
οὐκοῦν ἅδην ἤδη, εἶπον ἐγώ, ἔχουσιν ἡμῖν οἱ λόγοι περί τε τῆς πόλεως ταύτης καὶ τοῦ ὁμοίου ταύτῃ ἀνδρός; δῆλος γάρ που καὶ οὗτος οἷον φήσομεν δεῖν αὐτὸν εἶναι.
δῆλος, ἔφη· καὶ ὅπερ ἐρωτᾷς, δοκεῖ μοι τέλος ἔχειν.
“Then haven’t we now said enough,” I said, “about this city and about the man who resembles it? It’s clear, I suppose, what sort of person we’ll say he has to be.”
“It’s clear,” he said. “And as to your question, I think the subject is finished.”